Is Recession Preparing a New Breed of Survivalist? [Survival Today

Yahoo ran an interesting article this morning indicating a rise in the number of survivalist communities cropping up around the country. I have been wondering myself how much of the recent energy crisis is causing people to do things like stockpile food and water, grow their own vegetables, etc. Could it be that there are many people out there stockpiling and their increased buying has caused food prices to increase? It’s an interesting theory, but I believe increased food prices have more to do with rising fuel prices as cost-to-market costs have increased and grocers are simply passing those increases along to the consumer. A recent stroll through the camping section of Wal-Mart did give me pause - what kinds of things are prudent to have on hand in the event of a worldwide shortage of food and/or fuel? Survivalist in Training

I’ve been interested in survival stories since I was a kid, which is funny considering I grew up in a city. Maybe that’s why the idea of living off the land appealed to me. My grandfather and I frequently took camping trips along the Blue Ridge Parkway and around the Smoky Mountains. Looking back, some of the best times we had were when we stayed at campgrounds without electricity hookups, because it forced us to use what we had to get by. My grandfather was well-prepared with a camp stove and lanterns (which ran off propane), and when the sun went to bed we usually did along with it. We played cards for entertainment, and in the absence of televisions, games, etc. we shared many great conversations. Survivalist in the Neighborhood

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1646.html

Growing Giant Pumpkins In The Home Garden
HYG-1646-94

David A. Mangione
Pickaway County Extension
General

Growing giant pumpkins can be a fascinating experience. Before you can master the art of growing a giant, however, you must be familiar with the basic principles of growing pumpkins. This information can be found in the Extension FactSheet entitled “Growing Squash and Pumpkins in the Home Garden” (HYG-1620). Once you have become familiar with this information, you are ready to try your hand at growing a GIANT!
Fertilizer and Lime

Always apply lime and fertilizers based on soil test recommendations. Providing adequate nutrients throughout the growing season will insure healthy, vigorous vines, not to mention large pumpkins. Granular fertilizers should be applied as a broadcast application over the soil surface and incorporated into the soil 4 to 6 inches deep a few days ahead of setting out your transplants. Giant pumpkin vines require approximately 2 pounds nitrogen (N), 3 pounds phosphorous (P2O2) and 6 pounds potash (K2O) per 1,000 square feet of growing space. The addition of organic matter (manure, etc.) to the garden is important to establish good soil tilth.

A foliar feeding program should be started after pollination and fruit set have occurred. There are several foliar fertilizers available. Follow label directions and continue application throughout the growing season.
Planting and Space Requirements

Growing giant pumpkins requires an early start. Seeds should be sown individually and started indoors in 12-inch peat pots about the end of April. A well balanced potting medium is recommended. Plants are ready for transplanting when the first true leaf is fully expanded. This is usually 10 to 14 days after seeding. Transplants can be protected from late spring frost using a floating row cover.

Growing space in the garden is important. Each plant should be allowed approximately 2,500 square feet. This area may sound quite large, but it is essential for vine growth. Pumpkins prefer long hours of sunlight, so select your garden site accordingly. Avoid shaded areas and select an area with good surface and internal drainage.
Irrigation

Pumpkins are shallow rooted, so water slowly with at least one inch of water per week if rainfall is not adequate. More water may be required during hot, windy summer days. Water during morning or early afternoon hours so foliage dries by evening. This helps prevent the spread of leaf diseases.

Trickle irrigation is best, but soaker hoses also work well. Overhead sprinklers are effective; however, wet foliage increases the chance of disease, especially mildew.
Cultural

If planting is done in a well-prepared bed, weeds will seldom be a problem and can be controlled by hand-weeding or hoeing. Continue to remove weeds until the vines cover the ground. At this time, the dense foliage will shade out most weeds.

Plastic mulches are very effective for controlling weeds. Plastic mulches also warm the soil, and can maintain good soil moisture levels. The plastic can be installed when the soil is in good planting condition, any time from a few days to 2 to 3 weeks before planting. If you do not use plastic, pumpkins will benefit from organic mulches applied in the summer after the soil has warmed.

When summer mulching materials are used, such as straw, additional nitrogen is recommended. Mix one tablespoon of ammonium sulfate, calcium nitrate, or nitrate of soda per one bushel of mulch. Apply once or twice during the early growing season. A complete fertilizer that is high in nitrogen may be substituted for any of the above. Apply the fertilizer when the mulch is moist.

Herbicides are also available for weed control. However, only a trained and licensed applicator should apply these materials.
Windbreaks

Windbreaks are necessary to protect young plants that are not fully rooted. Windbreaks should be positioned on plants most susceptible to southwest winds until late June when side-runners are 3 to 4 feet long. The use of a snow fence and burlap can make an excellent windbreak. Covering the vines at each node with soil will help anchor vines down and promote secondary root development.
Insects and Diseases

The planting site of your plants should be rotated each year to reduce the incidence of insect and disease pressure. Without a regular spray program for insects and diseases, your success rate for producing a giant pumpkin can be significantly reduced. An insect and disease control program must be initiated at transplanting. Insects are the primary vectors for transmitting viruses. Once a viral infection has occurred, there is no way to stop it. There are several pesticides recommended for insect and disease control. Check with your local Extension agent for current rates and compounds. You may refer to Ohio Vegetable Production Guide (Bulletin 672) for current pesticide recommendations. The licensed pesticide applicator will have more options regarding insecticides and fungicides available to them.
Pollination

Although hand pollination is the preferred method to fruit setting, natural pollination by bees will work well. Hand pollination allows for a more controlled genetic cross. Do not begin pollinating until the plant has approximately 200 leaves. Initially it is recommended to allow only 4 to 6 pumpkins per plant. Once pumpkins reach volleyball size, trim back to one pumpkin. The more you reduce the competition for nutrients, the greater your success rate will be for achieving a giant size pumpkin.
Stem Stress

Because of the size and fast growth of these pumpkins, training vines and root pruning is important. This will prevent stem breakage and splitting. While the pumpkin is basketball size, curve the vine 80 to 90 degrees away from the fruit. About 3 feet out from the fruit, curve the vine back in the general direction it was headed. Clip roots 3 feet out on the vine. This will allow the vine to easily move upward as the pumpkin grows. Pumpkins long in shape tend to push the vine forward, resulting in a kink. If this happens, slide the pumpkin back about 4 to 5 inches - this is usually necessary when the pumpkin is about 300 pounds. Pumpkins round in shape are difficult to rotate without damaging the stem.
Shade

To protect the pumpkin from direct sunlight, construct a shade out of burlap or other lightweight material. This will prevent premature hardening of the outer skin and will allow the pumpkin to reach its full genetic potential in terms of physical size.
Cultivars

Be sure to select plant varieties that have the genetics to attain large size. Check seed catalogs and garden centers for possible giant pumpkin seed cultivars.
Harvest/Storing

Pumpkins should be harvested when they have a deep, solid color and the rind is hard. The vines are usually dying back at this time. Cover during a light frost and avoid leaving pumpkins out during a hard freeze to prevent softening.

Refer to the Extension FactSheet “Growing Squash and Pumpkins in the Home Garden” (HYG-1620) for more detailed information on storage.

All educational programs conducted by Ohio State University Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory basis without regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability or Vietnam-era veteran status.

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1630.html

Growing and Curing Gourds in the Home Garden
HYG-1630-96

Elaine Grassbaugh
Susan Metzger
Marianne Riofrio
History and Taxonomy

Gourds have been cultivated for thousands of years by many cultures worldwide, including Native Americans, for their usefulness as utensils, storage containers, and as ornaments. Gourds are related to melons, squash, pumpkins, and cucumbers, all members of the Cucurbitaceae or Cucumber family.

There are three types of gourds covered in this fact sheet: the cucurbita, or ornamental gourds; the lagenaria, which encompass the large, utilitarian gourds; and the luffa, or vegetable sponge.

The cucurbita include the colorful, variously-shaped ornamental gourds often used in fall arrangements. Plants of this group produce large orange or yellow blossoms that bloom in the daytime. The lagenaria group includes the Martin or Birdhouse, Bottle and Dipper gourds. These plants produce white blossoms that bloom at night. Lagenaria gourds are green on the vine, turning brown or tan, with thick, hard shells when dry. Luffas have an outer shell that is easily removed to expose a tough, fibrous interior that can be used as a sponge. Luffas produce prolific vines with yellow blossoms and require the longest growing season of all the gourds.

Cultivars
Cucurbita Lagenaria Luffa
Aladdin’s Turban Bird House (Sugar Trough) Luffa
Mini Red Turban Long Handle Dipper Mini Luffa
Large Turk’s Turban Extra Long Handle Dipper
Striped Crown of Thorns Large Bottle
Bicolor Pear Calabash (Penguin)
Striped Pear Caveman’s Club
Miniature Ball Italian Edible (Cucuzzi)
Cannon Ball Round Wax Gourd (Tonguan, Pung kwa, Tang kwa)
Basket Ball Bushel
Crown of Thorns Swan or Dolphin
Flat Striped Martin House
White Egg Wren House
Orange Warted
Small Spoon
Climate

Gourds are classified as a warm-season crop with a growing season from 100 to 180 days. Outdoor planting should occur when danger of frost has passed, and soil and air temperatures have warmed. Gourd seeds may rot before germinating if planted in cold, wet soils.
Culture

Since gourds demand a long growing season, they can be started indoors 4 weeks prior to planting outdoors. Gourd seeds should be planted in individual containers, such as peat pots, since the roots will not tolerate disturbance during transplanting.

Luffa seeds require special handling to ensure uniform germination. Seeds should be scarified (make the seedcoat more permeable to air and water) by roughening the side of the seeds with an emery board or sandpaper and then soaking in room temperature water for 24 hours prior to seeding into pots or the garden.

Select a sunny, well-drained site. Prepare soils thoroughly by adding organic matter, such as compost, composted manure or peat moss. Fertilizer and lime applications are best based on soil test results. Soil sample bags, forms, and instructions are available from your county Extension office. A general recommendation is to apply 2 to 3 pounds of a 1:2:2 ratio fertilizer, such as 5-10-10, per 100 square feet of garden area. Lime should be applied only if indicated by a soil test so as to maintain a pH between 6.5 and 6.8.

Plant seeds or transplants singly 2 feet apart in the row, with rows 5 feet apart; or in hills (thinned to 2 plants), 4 to 5 feet apart with rows 7 feet apart. Gourds are vigorous growers and will readily adapt to a trellis, fence, or arbor for support. For luffa plants, a very sturdy support is essential to keep all developing fruit off the ground. Fruit will form areas of discoloration if allowed to come in contact with the ground.

A side-dressing of fertilizer may be added when the vines begin to “run.” About 3 pounds of 10-10-10 or 10-6-4 fertilizer per 100 square feet of garden area will help maintain optimum growth. Provide consistent watering especially during hot, dry conditions.

Weeds may be controlled with mulches or by hand cultivation. Mulches have the advantage of conserving soil moisture and keeping fruit clean. Hand cultivation should be done with care since gourds have shallow roots and injury can result with deep cultivation.
Pollination

Gardeners become concerned when gourd plants blossom, but do not set fruit. Gourds produce separate male and female flowers. Male flowers serve as the pollinator and female flowers bear fruit. The female flower can be distinguished by the presence of the immature fruit at its base. Several male flowers are produced before any female flowers, and it is these male flowers that drop without setting fruit. In time, both male and female flowers are produced and the first fruit is set.
Insects and Diseases

There are several serious pests of gourds. Insect pests include the squash bug, squash vine borer, cucumber beetle and aphids. Diseases include bacterial wilt, powdery mildew, angular leaf spot and mosaic viruses. See the listing of related fact sheets for details on these problems and their controls.
Harvesting and Curing

Gourds are ready for harvest when the stems dry and turn brown. It is best to harvest gourds before frost. Mature gourds that have a hardened shell will survive a light frost, but less developed gourds will be damaged. The lagenaria will tolerate a light frost; but gourd color may be slightly affected. Gourds should be cut from the vine with a few inches of the stem attached. Take care not to bruise the gourds during harvest, as this increases the likelihood of decay during the curing process. Discard any fruit that is rotten, bruised or immature. After harvesting, gourds should be cleaned with soap and water, dried, and rubbing alcohol applied to the surface.

Curing cucurbita gourds is a two-step process which may take 1 to 6 months depending on the type and size of the gourd. Surface drying is the first step in the curing process, and takes approximately one week. During this time, the skin hardens and the exterior color of the gourd is set. Place clean, dry fruit in a dark, well-ventilated area. Arrange gourds in a single layer and make certain that the fruits do not touch each other. A slatted tray will allow air circulation around the gourds. Check gourds daily and discard fruit that show signs of decay or mold and any that develop soft spots.

Internal drying is the second step in curing and takes a minimum of four weeks. Keep the gourds in shallow containers in a dark, warm, well-ventilated area. If any mold appears on the outside skin, gourds can be wiped clean and allowed to continue drying. However, any gourds that become decayed, shriveled or misshapen should be discarded. Periodically turn the fruit to discourage shriveling and promote even curing. Providing warmth during the internal curing process will accelerate drying and discourage decay. Adequate curing is achieved when the gourd becomes light in weight and the seeds can be heard rattling inside. Cured gourds can be painted, waxed, or decorated.

Lagenaria gourds can be surface cured in the same manner as cucurbita gourds. However, the internal drying process takes much longer for the gourds to fully harden. After curing, the surface can be smoothed and polished with very fine steel wool or sandpaper. The hardened shell should be treated with rubbing alcohol, allowed to dry, and then waxed or shellacked for the final finish.

Luffa gourds have specific harvesting and processing techniques to produce high quality sponges. Harvest when the outer shell is dry, the gourd is light in weight and the seeds rattle inside. Remove the stem end of the gourd and shake out the seeds from the center cavity. Soak the luffa gourds in warm water until the outer skin softens to the point where it can be easily removed. Then soak the fibrous sponge in a solution of 1 part bleach to 9 parts water to obtain the desirable creamy-white appearance. Rinse in clear water and allow to dry before using.

Saving Seeds

Saving seeds from gourds could prove to be an interesting experience. Considerable cross-pollination occurs in the cucumber family. The gourd, squash and pumpkins seeds purchased from garden centers or through seed catalogs are from varieties grown in areas free from pollen of any other variety. Even so, a cross may sneak in now and then. Seeds saved from gourds grown in the garden will likely produce a cornucopia of fruit of different shapes, sizes and colors, none of which may resemble the fruit from which the seed was saved.
Seed Sources

Henry Field Seed & Nursery Co.
415 North Burnett Street
Shenandoah, IA 51602

Gurney’s Seed & Nursery Co.
110 Capital Street
Yankton, SD 57079

Liberty Seed Co.
P. O. Box 806
New Philadelphia, OH 44663

Nichols Garden Nursery
1198 North Pacific Highway
Albany, OR 97321-4598

Park Seed Co.
Cokesbury Road
Greenwood, SC 29648-0046

Rupp Seeds
17919 Co. Rd. B
Wauseon, OH 43567

R. H. Shumway’s
P. O. Box 1
Graniteville, SC 29829

Rocky Ford Gourds
P. O. Box 222
Cygnet, OH 43413

Stokes Seeds
P. O. Box 548
Buffalo, NY 14240-0548
Gourd Society

The Ohio Gourd Society is a chapter of the American Gourd Society. Its purpose is to educate the public about gourd culture and craft. The Ohio Gourd Society sponsors the annual Ohio Gourd Show in Mt. Gilead, held the first full weekend in October.

For membership information contact: The Ohio Gourd Society, P.O. Box 274, Mt. Gilead, OH 43338-0274. Phone & fax: (419) 362-6446.
Related Extension Fact Sheets

HYG-1608 Growing Cucumbers in the Home Garden
HYG-1620 Growing Squash and Pumpkins in the Home Garden
HYG-1646 Growing Giant Pumpkins in the Home Garden
HYG-2139 Striped Cucumber Beetle
HYG-2141 Squash Bug
HYG-2153 Squash Vine Borer

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1645.html

Growing Cucumbers, Peppers, Squash And Tomatoes In Containers
HYG-1645-94

Pamela J. Bennett

When garden space is limited, certain cultivars of cucumbers, peppers, squash and tomatoes can be easily grown in large containers with plants still producing the same amount as garden planted varieties.

In order to be successful you must first choose those varieties suitable for growing in containers. These varieties generally have a reduced growth habit and will not grow too large for a container. The seed packet information should include whether or not the cucumbers and squash varieties are suitable for container gardening. Most varieties of peppers and tomatoes are suitable for containers.

The biggest advantage to container growing is that you can grow them just about anywhere in the yard providing they get at least 8 hours of sunlight. They can be easily moved as needed and fruit can be harvested with ease. The disadvantage to container growing is that you have to watch the watering more closely as they are above ground and dry out quickly.
Type of Container

A standard type pot, the same height as diameter, with a diameter of at least 12 inches is recommended. A plastic pot will not dry out as rapidly as a clay pot and will require less watering. It is essential to have drainage holes in the bottom or root rotting will occur. Place a round fiberglass screen of the same shape and size as the pot in the bottom to prevent soil from washing out of the holes and to bar the entry of pests into the pot. Half whiskey barrels, black plastic pots and bushel baskets can also be used.
Starting the Plants

Pepper and tomato seeds can be started indoors in individual pots or in peat pellets as early as mid-March to April. You can also purchase already started plants in May. Cucumber and zucchini can be planted directly into the container as they are more difficult to transplant. These seeds can be sown early to mid-May.

For a fall crop, plant cucumber and squash seeds in early July. This produces a September harvest when the earlier plantings are beginning to decline. The potted plants can be moved into the garage during frosty fall nights extending the harvest into November.
Soil Mix

Because these plants are being grown in containers, you can mix the soil to the exact requirements, giving you better growth and production. They require a loose, well-drained soil generous in organic matter. A good mix consists of one part each of potting soil, perlite, sphagnum peat moss and compost. Garden soil should be avoided as it is likely to be infested with soil pests. When using compost, make sure temperatures during the composting process were high enough to kill pest organisms. Add a slow release fertilizer by following label recommendations to each pot. This provides additional nutrients slowly over a longer period when there is active growth and fruit production.

Water holding gels or hydrogels have been introduced recently to help reduce the watering requirements of container plants. These gels are either separate and can be added to the soil mix or can already be included in the mix. The gels help to retain moisture in the soil until it is needed by the plant.
Staking the Plant

Depending on the growth habit of the plant, it may be beneficial to stake it. Be sure to place the stakes in the pot before filling the soil and before you plant. There are several types of staking systems to use depending on the plant.

A good type of staking system to use with cucumbers is a teepee form that allows the plants to grow up the stakes. Tomato cages or stakes can be used to support tomatoes and peppers. Squash may or may not require staking, depending on plant growth habits.
Planting

Fill the container three-fourths full with the soil mix. Select stocky, vigorous plants and position the plant close to the stake and fill in the soil mix around the plant. Water thoroughly; if the soil settles, add more soil until it comes to within 3/4 inch of the top of the container.

For direct-seeding squash and cucumbers, fill the container close to the top and plant five to six seeds in the center of the pot, covering with 1/2 inch of soil mix. Water and keep the soil warm. After germination, cut off the seedlings except for the two largest to avoid overcrowding. After they reach a height of 8 to 10 inches, cut off one, leaving only one plant per container. Avoid pulling out the seedlings as this disturbs the roots of the remaining seedlings.
Growth

Place the container in a site with full sun and protection from the wind. Check the plants daily for watering needs. By mid-July, begin to use a fertilizer solution for supplemental feeding. Once a week give each plant a good watering with a water soluble fertilizer such as Peters 20-20-20 or Miracle Grow 15-30-15 at the recommended rate. Do not fertilize when the plants are dry-water them thoroughly first. Check plants daily for signs of insect and disease infestation. Keep mature fruits harvested to induce continued fruit formation. Refer to HYG-FactSheets 1608, 1618, 1620 and 1624 for individual, specific, cultural requirements.
Suggested Varieties

Cucumbers

* Salad Bush Hybrid
* Bush Champion
* Picklebush
* Spacemaster
* Hybrid Bush Crop
* Midget Bush Pickler

Tomatoes - Most varieties will grow in containers.

Peppers - Most varieties will grow in containers.

Squash

* Burpee’s Butter Bush
* Burpee’s Bush Table Queen
* Bushkin Pumpkin
* Bush Crookneck
* Bush Acorn
* Hybrid Jackpot Zucchini
* Black Magic Zucchini

This fact sheet was reviewed by Marianne Riofrio, Dr. Robert Precheur and E. C. Wittmeyer.

The author gratefully acknowledges the work of James D. Utzinger and Richard Poffenbaugh, on whose fact sheet this is based.

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1616.html

Growing Onions in the Home Garden
HYG-1616-92

Marianne Riofrio
E. C. Wittmeyer

The onion is one of the most important vegetables grown and is very popular in Ohio home gardens. Onions commonly grown are the mild types, such as White and Yellow Sweet Spanish or the more pungent globe types. The pungent onions are better suited to long-term storage.

The common onion (Allium cepa), the most popular and widely grown in Ohio home gardens, is grown from either seed, plants or sets for use as both green onions and dry bulbs. The home gardener will usually have more success with sets. Any standard onion variety or hybrid can be used for green bunching onions if harvested at the proper stage of maturity. Onions can be used as green onions within 30 days if grown from plants or sets; or 40 to 50 days if grown from seed. There are, however, bunching varieties that produce a true bunching onion or scallion with either small or no bulbs. For dry onions from sets or plants, 100 or more days are required from planting, depending on the variety grown.

The potato or multiplier onion, and the Egyptian onion are grown from vegetative parts rather than seed. In the case of the multiplier or potato onion (Allium cepa var. solanium), the underground portion is a compound bulb formed from the segregation of a large mother bulb. Each bulb in the compound bulb produces 6 to 12 plants. Their principal use is the production of early green bunching onions.

The Egyptian onion (Allium cepa var. viviparum) produces clusters of small bulbs called bulbils at the top of the seed stalk in late summer. The bulbils are used to produce very early green onions. Both multiplier and Egyptian onions are planted in the fall, overwintered with some mulch protection, and brought into production in the early spring. Due to this method of culture, the onions are referred to as “winter onions”.
Climatic Requirements

The onion is adapted to a wide range of temperatures and is frost-tolerant. Best production is obtained when cool temperatures (55 F to 75 degrees F) prevail over an extended period of time, permitting considerable foliage and root development before bulbing starts. After bulbing begins, high temperature and low relative humidity extending into the harvest and curing period are desirable. A constant supply of adequate moisture is necessary for best results. For onions started from plants, a light mulch will help conserve moisture for uniform growth.

An important aspect of onion development is the length of day or photoperiod. Photoperiod, along with temperature, controls when the onions form bulbs. Some onion varieties are short-day in response, and form bulbs when the days are 12 hours or less in length. Other varieties are long-day plants, forming bulbs when there are 15 or more hours of daylight. This effect of day length makes some onion varieties unsuitable for northern climates because they begin to bulb when the plants are too small. The influence of day length also requires that Sweet Spanish and Bermuda onions be grown from plants rather than seed in Ohio.

Unfavorable growing conditions may result in onions bolting or sending up flower stalks. If flower stalks should develop, carefully cut them from the plant immediately or bulbing will be reduced.
Soil Requirements

Onions grow best in a loose, well-drained soil of high fertility and plenty of organic matter. Avoid heavier soils such as clay and silt loams unless modified with organic matter to improve aeration and drainage. Onions are sensitive to highly acid soils and grow best when the pH is between 6.2 and 6.8.
Fertilizers

As for most vegetables, lime and fertilizers are best applied using the results of a soil test as a guide. Arrangements for soil testing can be made through your local County Extension office. Fertilizers of a 1-2-2 ratio (5-10-10, for example) are good for onion production. As the onion plant’s root system is very limited, high soil fertility is essential for good production.
Establishing the Planting

Onions should be planted early in the spring as soon as the soil can be worked. Onion seed is sown 1/2 inch deep, while sets are planted one to two inches deep. A three-inch plant spacing is desirable. Rows should be 12 to 18 inches or more apart depending on the method of cultivation. For wide row planting, plants or sets are placed on 3-inch centers. Onions are ideal for wide row planting, but keep in mind that weeding must then be done by hand.
Suggested varieties

The following varieties are recommended for Ohio gardens:

* Green (bunching) - White Portugal, Tokyo Long White, Beltsville Bunching, White Spear, Ebenezer, Yellow Globe strains.
* Dry (storage) - Ebenezer, Yellow Globe strains, Elite, Stuttgarter (from sets).
* Sweet (from plants) - White or Yellow Sweet Spanish, Bermuda.

Cultural Practices

After the plants are well-established, a mulch will conserve soil moisture, prevent soil compaction and help suppress weed growth. In windy areas, small plants must be protected with a windbreak of some type to prevent serious damage or loss of plants. Weeds, insects, and diseases must be controlled. Thrips, onion maggots, downy mildew, neck rot, pink root, and smut are problems that can occur in onion planting. Contact your local Cooperative Extension office for current control recommendations.
Harvesting, Curing and Storing

Harvest onions when the tops have fallen over and dried. On sunny, breezy days, onions may be pulled and left in the garden for a day or two to dry before they are taken to a curing area. Curing must take place for the onions to be stored for any length of time. Cure onions by placing them in a warm, well-ventilated area until the necks are thoroughly dry. With warm temperatures, good air circulation and low humidity, curing should be completed within two weeks after harvest. Onions are best stored in a cool moderately dry area in ventilated containers.

The authors gratefully acknowledge J.D. Utzinger and W.M. Brooks for authoring the 1984 fact sheet on which this is based.

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1423.html

Growing Grapes in the Home Fruit Planting
HYG-1423-98
Gary Gao
Introduction

Figure 1. A beautiful grape arbor at Stan Hywet Garden in Akron.

Grapes are an excellent fruit for fresh use or processing into jam, jelly, juice, pie, or wine. In addition, grapevines can be ornamental and valuable as shade or screen plants in the home landscape when trained on a trellis or arbor (Figure 1). Well-grown grapevines of cultivars such as Concord can produce up to 20 pounds or more of the fruit per vine per year. Once established, well-tended grapevines can be productive for 40 years or more. Home fruit gardeners can be successful if they select the right cultivars, maintain a good fertility and pest management program, and properly prune grapevines annually.
Cultivar Selection

Grape cultivars may be of the American, European, or French hybrid types. American and French hybrid types are best suited to Ohio growing conditions because they tend to be more winter-hardy. Recommended American cultivars include Concord, Niagara, Delaware, Reliance, and Canadice (Table 1). Several French-American hybrids, such as Seyval Blanc and Vidal Blanc, are recommended for their wine making qualities and good winter hardiness. European grapes are not recommended for home plantings since they are not winter-hardy in Ohio.

Depending on the cultivars selected, grapevines will produce berries that may be red, blue, white (greenish-yellow), purple, or black with a distinctive flavor. Both seeded and seedless types are now available. Some cultivars are good table grapes while others make better wine grapes (Table 1). In Ohio, the earliest cultivars ripen beginning about mid-August, while the latest cultivars ripen fruit from late September to early October. Canadice is an example of an early season cultivar. Concord is a mid-season cultivar and the most popular grape in Ohio (Figure 2). Reliance is one of the best tasting, red seedless grapes (Figure 3). Catawba is a popular late-ripening cultivar used mostly for wines.

By selecting and planting different cultivars in the home planting, the gardener can spread the harvest over several weeks. However, if interested in planting only a few vines or even an isolated single vine, the gardener may do so without worrying about the necessity of planting different cultivars. Grapevines available to gardeners are self-pollinated or self-fruitful. Bees are not required for pollination.

Figure 2. Concord grape is the most popular grape in Ohio.

Disease tolerance is another important factor to consider since wet springs, and hot and humid summers tend to favor common diseases that attack grapes. Try to select grape cultivars that are least susceptible to diseases (Table 2). However, there are no grape cultivars that are disease resistant.
Planting

Early spring is the best time to plant grapevines. Fall planting is not recommended because plants are likely to be lost to heaving during the first winter. During the first year, the soil is prepared for planting, cultivars are selected, and vines are planted, mulched, fertilized, and kept free of weeds, insects, and diseases. Prune off broken or dead portions of branches and roots. At the same time, prune top growth to a single cane. During the first year, the vines are normally tied to a stake to keep them off the ground, prevent damage, and make spraying more effective. If the season of planting is dry, supplemental watering is also necessary to keep the vines growing. It is important to get as much first-year growth as possible.
Establishment

Three years are normally required to establish a grape planting. Vines planted for training on a trellis are normally placed 8 feet apart, while those planted for training on an arbor can be placed 4 feet apart. Before growth begins the second year, a support for the vines, either a trellis or an arbor, must be provided. Care of vines the second year is similar to that of the first year. However, during the second season, a system for training the vines should be selected.

Vines are trained to a particular system by pruning and tying the canes to the support system. In some methods of training grapevines, the canes are tied to wires above the trunk and arms of the vines. Such training works well where grapevines are to be grown on a fence or in an upright position. In another method of training, the canes are tied to the wires and the fruit bearing shoots are allowed to droop or hang down. A third method is the cordon type training system. Here the fruiting canes are developed from a horizontal extension of the trunk called a cordon. If canes are pruned long, they can be tied to the lower wires. If pruned short, they hang free. One of the most common training systems is called the single curtain/cordon bilateral system (Figure 4).

Table 1. Common Grape Cultivars Recommended for Home Fruit Plantings

Continued.

http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1426.html

Kiwifruit and Hardy Kiwi
HYG-1426-93
John Strang
Richard C. Funt

Kiwifruit, which has replaced the old English name of ‘Chinese gooseberry’, are native to the mountains and hills of southwestern China where they grow wild in trees and on bushes. The kiwifruit was introduced to the United Kingdom, Europe, United States, and New Zealand between 1900 to 1910 from China. Commercial plantings were made in New Zealand about 1930 and have become widespread over the last 20-30 years.

There are over 50 species in the genus Actinidia to which the kiwifruit belong. All of these are long-lived perennial vines or creeping types. The plants are dioecious which means that male and female flowers are found on different plants. Thus, one male plant is needed for each eight female plants for pollination. Male plants do not produce fruit. Fruit range from round to oblong in shape and from smooth-skinned to hairy. Flesh color may be green, orange, or yellow.

‘Hayward’ is a female variety of A. deliciosa var. deliciosa that is now the primary variety grown commercially. This is because of its large fruit size, superior keeping quality (up to 6 months) and fine flavor. There are now a number of strains of ‘Hayward’ being grown.

‘Hayward’ fruit are fuzzy, brown and oblong in shape. The flesh is tart-sweet and tastes like a combination of citrus, melon, and strawberry. When fruit are cut crosswise the emerald-green flesh has a ring of small black edible seeds. This variety is primarily grown in California’s Central Valley in the United States. It is only winter hardy down to approximately 10 degrees F and consequently will not survive in the mid west.

A. arguta is more cold hardy than the kiwifruit and is reported to survive temperatures of -25 degrees F. This is the species that has been purchased and planted by many backyard fruit growers in the midwest. Fruit size is considerably smaller than that of ‘Hayward’ and is about the size of a large sweet cherry. The skin of A. arguta is smooth and consumed with the fruit. Fruit are greenish-yellow in color and acidic until ripe. When ripe they are very sweet and juicy and the flavor is considered to be better than that of the kiwifruit.

A. kolomikta has smaller fruit than A. arguta. A. kolomikta is very winter hardy and will survive temperatures down to -30 degrees F. Fruit are very sweet and have a superb aroma and flavor. They are also very high in vitamin C which can be one percent of the fresh weight. The vine is the least vigorous of the three Actinidias discussed here. It is generally known as a landscape plant for its pink and white variegated leaves which are particularly attractive on the male plants.

Both A. arguta and A. kolomikta are called hardy kiwi and have not succeeded in commercial plantings thus far. They are primarily grown by amateur horticulturists in areas where midwinter temperatures prevent the growth of kiwifruit.
Frost Hardiness

One of the primary problems in growing any of the Actinidia species is that the plants begin growing early in the spring and the young shoots and developing flower buds are extremely susceptible to injury from spring frosts. They can be damaged by even brief exposures to 30 degrees F or lower. Thus, the flower buds are normally killed by spring freezes and the plants rarely produce fruit. Successful cropping of kiwifruit may require a long frost-free growing season of about 220 days.

The plants, particularly young plants, are susceptible to trunk injury from spring frosts. The trunk increases in hardiness as it gets older and develops a thicker layer of bark, but it is recommended that the trunks be protected. This has been done by laying the plants on the ground and covering them with leaves, wrapping the trunks or using sprinklers and heaters for frost protection.
Site Selection and Planting

Hardy kiwi often do not survive the first growing season. This is generally due to planting in a poorly drained soil and the development of root rot or neglect after transplanting.

Survival can be improved by growing them in a five gallon container for the first season. Plants should be staked and transplanted only after they have become well established late in the first growing season or after the danger of frost is past the following season. The plant must be transplanted to the yard or the container must be protected during the winter to prevent the roots from freezing. Water the plants adequately, but not excessively.

Select a planting site that has good air drainage, and one that is protected from high winds and is not frost prone. The soil should be a well-drained loam, since heavy clay soils make plants much more prone to root rot. Plants do best when the soil pH is around 6.5. Set plants 15-18 feet apart in the row.
Fertilization

Fertilization involves mixing one pound of organic fertilizer or 2 to 4 oz of a slow release fertilizer with the soil at planting. The roots are very sensitive to fertilizer burn, so over fertilization should be avoided. At the end of the growing season apply one-half pound of 10-10-10. In subsequent years fertilize twice a year, once in early spring when the plants are dormant and then just after bloom in early June. Apply 1 lb of 10-10-10 in the spring and 0.75 lb after bloom the second year and 2 lbs. in the spring and 1 lb. after bloom the third and future years. Distribute the fertilizer well over the entire root system to avoid root injury.
Trellising

There are several different trellis types and training systems available. The T-bar trellis will be described here. Construct your trellis prior to or shortly after planting. It must by strong enough to support the weight of the plants. Use posts that are from four to six inches in diameter and eight to nine feet long. Locate a post at each plant (15-18 ft apart) and set them two to three feet deep. Brace the end posts well. Attach a five-foot long two-by-four cross-arm to the top of each post and brace it back to the post with wire or wood. Then stretch three 8 to 12 gage wires along the tops of the cross-arms. Place two of the wires at the ends of the cross-arms and one down the center.
Training Young Plants

Train a single shoot up each post to the top of the trellis by removing any lateral growth. Tie the shoot, which will form the trunk loosely to the post and prevent it from winding around the post.

At the top of the trellis, train the shoot along the center wire in one direction. The following year a shoot will be trained along the center wire in the opposite direction. These two shoots will form the permanent leaders on the vine. Prevent these leaders from twisting around the center wire, since this can weaken the vine in future years. The lateral canes that develop from these leaders are tied perpendicular to the leaders to the outer wires. These canes will be the fruiting canes the following year.
Dormant Pruning

The main leaders that were trained to the center T-bar wire are permanent unless they become weak or winter injured. Then they are renewed by tying down a new vigorous shoot. Replace all other wood on an annual cycle in late February. Pruning should be done well before growth starts in the spring to prevent vine bleeding. Remove most of the wood that fruited the previous year and any twisted or broken canes. Retain vigorous one-year-old canes that have not fruited and are well spaced (about every 10-15 inches) along the leaders and form a single canopy layer. Prune these back to the first eight buds. Where vigorous one-year-old canes have not developed or vegetative vigor is reduced, retain the fruiting arms that fruited the previous year by cutting back to eight buds past the last fruit bearing leaf axil. A small percentage of spurs are also retained for fruit production. These are short laterals that have terminated their growth back close to the leaders. They are produced usually when strong shoots are cut back.

As an alternative to the single trunk training practiced in most areas where the hardy kiwi is grown, recommendations for the Eastern United States suggest the use of multiple main trunks. This is primarily due to trunk splitting and injury due to spring frosts. Multiple trunks can be developed from the ground and each trained as a leader on the trellis. If one trunk is injured, it can be removed and still leave a large proportion of the plant.

Inspect plants in the spring for trunk damage. If the bark is lifted completely around the trunk, prune the trunk off below this damage. Vigorous regrowth from the stump will replace the trunk.
Summer Pruning

Summer pruning is begun just before flowering. Remove shoots that do not have flowers that originate outside the wires. Flowering shoots are cut back four to six leaves past the last flower. Tangled shoots are also removed. Later in the summer, shoots that are not needed for replacement canes are removed and replacement canes are tipped to prevent tangling.
Pruning Male Plants

Since male plants do not produce fruit they can be particularly vigorous. These plants are pruned immediately after flowering and the flowering shoots are cut back to vigorous new growth closer to the leader. Male plants are not pruned during the dormant season so that maximum flowering is achieved.
Irrigation

Irrigation is important for a number of reasons. Lack of water will reduce fruit size, reduce flower numbers, and induce early fruit drop. Drought will also induce leaf drop and early fruit ripening which leads to uneven ripening and poor fruit flavor. Water stress also delays the development of vine maturity and appears to reduce vine fall hardiness.
Flowering

Flowering on vines that have not been damaged by spring frost normally occurs on three-year-old vines. If the plants were propagated from juvenile vines instead of mature vines by the nursery, flowering may take an additional year or two to begin. Flowering takes place in late May.
Fruit Development and Harvest

The fruit quickly sizes after pollination and reaches its full size in the middle the summer. However, the remaining portion of the season is required to mature the fruit. Harvest usually takes place in late September and the fruit are picked before they are ripe. Fruit taste better when picked, refrigerated and ripened as opposed to ripened on the vine.

To determine when to pick, harvest a few fruit and allow them to soften for a few days. When fruit ripens to a suitably sweet flavor, harvest all of the fruit and refrigerate them. Fruit will store in the refrigerator for five to six weeks. Removal from the refrigerator initiates softening and ripening and should be done several days before eating. All of the hardy kiwi varieties have a similar flavor. Hardy kiwi often reach sugar levels of 20 percent and are considerably sweeter than the ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit. The fruit also contains large quantities of the enzyme actinidin, which will tenderize meat.
Diseases and Pests

Phytophthora crown and root rot is one of the more serious diseases of hardy kiwi. It causes weak plant growth and the development of small yellow leaves. Terminal growth may be stunted or die back. Plants often collapse and die during hot weather. This disease occurs on heavy wet clay soils and these soil types should be avoided when planting. Over irrigation can also lead to Phytophthora root rot.

Hardy kiwi plants are also damaged by root knot nematodes. Two-spot spider mites can build up on plants during hot, dry weather, particularly on greenhouse grown plants and occasionally outside. Japanese beetles will do some leaf feeding.

There are several reports of cats digging up the roots and clawing the plants and foliage. Hardware-cloth or chicken wire trunk protectors are recommended for this problem.

This information was developed from information derived from the Actinida Enthusiasts Newsletter, Small Fruit Crop Management by G.J. Galletta and D.G. Himelrick, conversations with Daniel Milbocker at the Hampton Roads Agricultural Experiment Station in Virginia Beach, VA, and Michael McConkey of Edible Landscaping Nursery in Waynesboro, VA and through limited observations and experience with kiwifruit and hardy kiwi.

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/12/26/p3347

ATTRA Question of the Week

Where can I find resources for on-farm electricity generation by steam engine?

G.N.
Missouri

Answer: In response to your inquiry into the purchase of modern steam engines, I have found the following sources:

Reliable Steam Engine Co.
212 Bain Drive
Tidewater, OR 97390
(541) 528-3380

On the website www.pioneer.net/~carlich/ they describe several steam engines they manufacture; they offer both the castings, so a do-it-yourself machinist can produce the final engine, and finished engines. On the website description they say they offer “Small 4-40 HP Steam engines and boilers for sale.” They also manufacture boilers and controls.

Mike Brown Solutions
P.O. Box 4884-N
Springfield, MO 65808

Mike Brown Solutions www.mikebrownsolutions.com/mbsteam.htm offers one horsepower, three horsepower, and twenty horsepower steam engines. They also offer completed engines or the castings from which a machinist can build the finished engine. There are a couple of books offered, Basics of Steam Engineering and Steam Boiler Basics, and a lot of other materials on a variety of subjects. The web site is a little strange to navigate, but there are a lot of resources there.

Crescent Marine Steam Engines www.cabinfeverexpo.com/Crescent/

A New Zealand resource www.colonialenergy.co.nz/

A listing of engines for sale; most are small, but there are some larger ones www.steam-engines-for-sale.com/

A listing of antique engine shows is on www.old-engine.com/shows.shtml

A listing of steam books is available at www.enginebooks.com/steam.htm

One steam engine under development is the Cyclone engine. It looks like it is designed to work with liquid or gaseous fuels. The engine is under development, but Cyclone feels as though this would be a good application for the engine. www.cyclonepower.com/

Another small steam engine (the site doesn’t indicate Horsepower) is the Green Steam Engine www.greensteamengine.com/

On the subject of interconnection to the utility, it looks is though Missouri allows net metering of biomass fueled generation up to 100 KW. Their rules can be seen online at www.sos.mo.gov/adrules/csr/current/4csr/4c240-20.pdf.

Expect a system to cost in the $30K range and generate enough power to be a net producer of power.
Posted: December 26, 2006

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2007/06/18/p3978

ATTRA Question of the Week

What are some alternative uses for whey from my on-farm cheesemaking operation?

T.H.
Virginia

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information on uses of excess whey from cheese production.

Whey is a byproduct of cheese production and contains mainly lactose, minerals, and water (6-7% total solids). Approximately nine pounds of whey are produced and a gallon and a half of water is used for every pound of cheese produced. In some regions a market has been developed for the whey, but most producers find the whey to be a liability, with costs associated with shipping for land application as much as $30 to $40 per ton. There are some alternatives, and they all require the development of some new type of farm infrastructure. This letter will describe some work that has been done looking at whey as a cattle feed, a pasture fertilizer, and as a biogas feedstock.

Feeding Liquid Whey to Cattle

Direct feeding of liquid whey: Liquid whey can be fed to cattle much the same way water is delivered to cattle in dairy stall barns. A closed, gravity fed system would work well as it combines a simple, low-input system with the benefits of fly control. Whey has a low pH (around 3 or 4) and this helps to prevent spoilage as well.

Cattle drink liquid whey much the same as any liquid feed supplement, but will consume as much as 80 to 100 pounds of free-choice whey per head per day. It is important to substitute whey for other concentrates because large consumption of whey can reduce forage intake. Always change cattle rations slowly, as bloat or acidosis may result. Although a liquid, whey is nutrient dense and will not replace water in the diet. Provide clean, free-choice water at all times (Shaver, no date).

Whey silage: Another feeding method mix whey with chopped low quality forage in a feed mixer to make whey silage for cattle. After about a month the silage is completely fermented and stable, as long as it remains covered and protected. Whey silage has a dry matter of 30 to 40%, and crude protein (CP) of around 11 to 13% (ZoBell and Burrell, 2002). The energy content is usually 98% of the energy value of ear corn.

Application to Pasture as a Fertilizer

See New Zealand Journal of Dairy Science and Technology article, “Utilization of Whey as a Fertilizer Replacement for Dairy Pasture.” Of particular interest is Table 1, which contains a chemical analysis of three kinds of whey: lactic casein, suphuric casein, and cheese; and Table 2, which lists the approximate amount of plant available nutrients in kilograms per hectare contained in the recommended application rate of 40,000 liters/ha [4278 gallons per acre]. The New Zealand authors concluded that whey can replace conventional fertilizers in dairy pastures, and provide suggestions for application equipment and storage pits.

Biogas from Anaerobic Digestion

Organic matter can be decomposed by bacteria in an oxygen-free environment, yielding methane that can be used as an energy source. Just about any organic substance will do, but some feedstocks are more efficient at yielding methane than others. It so happens that whey is an excellent feedstock for producing methane, and has some potential for contributing to the energy needs on the farm.

According to the European Anaerobic Digestion Network (2005), “the digestion process takes place in a warmed, sealed airless container (the digester) which creates the ideal conditions for the bacteria to ferment the organic material in oxygen-free conditions. The digestion tank needs to be warmed and mixed thoroughly to create the ideal conditions for the bacteria to convert organic matter into biogas (a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane and small amounts of other gases).

“There are two types of AD processes:

Mesophilic digestion: The digester is heated to 30 – 35 degrees C [86 – 95 degrees F] and the feedstock remains in the digester typically for 15-30 days. Mesophilic digestion tends to be more robust and tolerant than the thermophilic process, but gas production is less, larger digestion tanks are required and sanitization, if required, is a separate process stage.

Thermophilic digestion: The digester is heated to 55 degrees C [131 degrees F] and the residence time is typically 12-14 days. Thermophilic digestion systems offer higher methane production, faster throughput, better pathogen and virus ‘kill’, but require more expensive technology, greater energy input and a higher degree of operation and monitoring.

“During this process 30-60% of the digestible solids are converted into biogas. This gas must be burned, and can be used to generate heat or electricity of both. It can be burned in a conventional gas boiler and used as heat for nearby buildings including farmhouses, and to heat the digester. It can be used to power associated machinery or vehicles. Alternatively, it can be burned in a gas engine to generate electricity. If generating electricity, it is usual to use a more efficient combined heat and power (CHP) system, where heat can be removed in the first instance to maintain the digester temperature, and any surplus energy can be used for other purposes. A larger scale CHP plant can supply larger housing or industrial developments, or supply electricity to the grid.

“As fresh feedstock is added to the system, digestate is pumped from the digester to a storage tank. Biogas continues to be produced in the storage tank; collection and combustion may be an economic and safety requirement. The residual digestate can be stored and then applied to the land at an appropriate time without further treatment, or it can be separated to produce fiber and liquor. The fiber can be used as a soil conditioner or composted prior to use or sale. The liquor contains a range of nutrients and can be used as a liquid fertilizer which can be sold or used on-site as part of a crop nutrient management plan.

“AD products can, therefore, help farmers reduce their requirement for non-renewable forms of energy such as fossil fuels, and the digestate, if correctly used, can reduce demand for synthetic fertilizers and other soil conditioners which may be manufactured using less sustainable methods” (The European Anaerobic Digestion Network, 2005).

Resources:

Amaral-Phillips, Donna M., and R.. W. Hemken. 1997. Using Byproducts to Feed Dairy Cattle. University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension.

Balsam, John and Dave Ryan. 2006. Anaerobic Digestion of Animal Wastes: Factors to Consider. Butte, MT: ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.

European Anaerobic Digestion Network, The. 2005. AD Basics; How Does it Work.

McGinnis, Laura. 2007. New Uses for Dairy Byproducts. Agricultural Research, May/June.

MDA. 2005. Opportunities, Constraints, and Research Needs for Co-digestion of Alternative Waste Streams with Livestock Manure in Minnesota. Minnesota Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Resources Management and Development Division.

Radford, J.B., D.B. Galpin, and M.F. Parkin. 1986. Utilization of whey as a fertilizer replacement for dairy pasture. New Zealand Journal of Dairy Science and Technology. Vol. 21. p. 65-72.

Shaver, Randy D. No date. By-Product Feedstuffs in Dairy Cattle Diets in the Upper Midwest. College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin -Madison

ZoBell, D.R., and W. C. Burrell. 2002. Producing Whey Silage for Growing and Finishing Cattle. Utah State University Extension.
Posted: June 18, 2007

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2007/08/13/p4187

ATTRA Question of the Week

What can you tell me about sprouting grains for livestock feed?

A.M.
Pennsylvania

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information about sprouting grains for livestock feeds.

It is not considered to be cost effective to sprout grains for livestock feed. Generally, in livestock feeding, the nutritional quality of grains is not improved by sprouting them. A brief section from Cheeke’s Applied Animal Nutrition: Feeds and Feeding, points out that the germination of the seed utilizes energy that would have been available to the animal. Since the germinating seed uses up starch (and releases carbon dioxide), the remaining nutrients (protein, fiber, vitamins, minerals) become more concentrated; however, the total amount of these nutrients is not actually higher. However, sprouting can increase the amounts of carotene (vitamin A precursor) (1).

From a sustainable agriculture point of view, livestock should generally be raised in regions where forages can be produced to support their production, with grazing forages, hays, and other sources of fodder instead of sprouting grains for green feed. However, in specialty poultry production such as free-range, sprouted grains can play an important role in providing green forage during winter.

According to Rice’s 1930 book Practical Poultry Management, sprouts must be kept at 60 F in order to sprout; otherwise mold will occur and the room should be well-ventilated. However, modern producer Harvey Ussery sprouts successfully in his basement although he says in winter, the process is slower (see Further Reading section). Grains, such as wheat, rye, barley, and oats, are commonly sprouted as well as legumes such as peas, mungbeans, and lentils. If a green sprout is desired, light needs to be provided.

There are several low-cost methods to producer sprouts, including buckets, bags, trays, or cabinets. High-tech methods can also be used for large quantities of sprouts.

Bucket Method:
The bucket and/or tank methods is a simple way to produce large quantities of sprouted grains or beans in a small area. Sprouted grains are harvested and fed to livestock when seeds have sprouted and roots have grown 0.5 – 2 in in length. Seed germination and root growth, not top growth, are the goals.

Grains or beans are placed in the bottom of a bucket or tank and soaked in water overnight. After soaking, seeds are drained and rinsed. Thereafter, seeds need to be rinsed with water once to twice daily. After a few days, seed swelling and germination occurs followed by root emergence. Sprouted grains can then be fed directly to livestock. Commercial sprout producers use large stainless steel vats to raised mungbeans sprouts via this method. Milk tanks could also be used. Drainage holes that can be opened and closed, or the ability to tip a tank over to dump water, are important features.

Bag Method:
Sprouting can also be done in small muslin bags that are hung; however, the sprouts will be white—not green—due to lack of light.

Tray Method and Cabinets:
The goals of the tray and shallow bed methods are top growth (i.e. wheat grass, barley grass, hydroponic forage, etc. Fresh greens have chlorophyll and vitamins that are not present in sprouted seeds. In either case, soaked seeds are spread very thickly on a flat surface. Seeds are rinsed with water on a daily basis until germination occurs, and thereafter as needed. Sprouts are harvested with leaves are 6-8 inches in height. The whole plant, roots as well as top growth, can be fed to livestock. Other seeds suited to the tray or shallow bed methods include buckwheat, sunflower , and amaranth.

The tray methods is suitable to either vertically –stacked trays inside a growth chamber or single-layer tray on horizontal shelves. Fluorescent lights placed directly over the sprouts can provide sufficient light for indoor production (i.e. barn, storage shed, basement). In the past, sprouting cabinets were sometimes warmed to keep the temperature above 70 F.

High-tech Methods:
Large quantities of grains can be sprouted in a high-tech manner, using a separate room or greenhouse or other method to enclose and control the environment.

Single-layer growing beds which can be located inside a greenhouse during the winter months, or outdoors during the growing season. Shallow beds are adaptable to floor or bench production systems, and may be framed or simply lay flat. They are called shallow beds because they use a shallow layer of compost, peat moss, or potting mix as a starting medium.

Hydroponic grass production can be extended into the winter months through the use of an attached solar greenhouse or a free-standing low-cost hoop house. In really cold weather, root zone heating is an option that can be added to the greenhouse set-up.

For more information on hydroponics and sprouted grain technology (for human consumption), see ATTRA’s Greenhouse and Hydroponic Vegetable Production Resources and ATTRA’s Sprouts and Wheatgrass Production and Marketing, which includes contacts for the International Sprout Growers Association, is an organization of commercial sprout producers.

References:

1) Ensminger, M.E., J.E. Oldfield, and W.W. Heinemann. 1990. Feeds & Nutrition Digest. 2nd Edition. The Ensminger Publishing Co., Clovis, CA. p. 274.

Resources:

Cheeke, Peter R. 1991. Applied Animal Nutrition: Feeds and Feeding. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. p. 52 53.

Harrison, John Bede. 1993. Growing Food Organically. Waterwheel Press, Seattle, WA. Title page, p. 121-129.

Jackson, Homer W. 1926. Poultry Houses and Fixtures. Reliable Poultry Journal Publishing Company, Dayton, OH. Title page, p.303-305.

Rice, James E. and Harold E. Botsford. 1930. Practical Poultry Management. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. Title page, p. 95-96.

Further Reading:

Ussery, Harvey. 2007. Sprouting to Enhance Poultry Feeds.
Posted: August 13, 2007

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2008/01/14/p4750

ATTRA Question of the Week

What information can you give me on seed exchange groups?

N.P.
Oklahoma

Answer: Thank you for requesting information from ATTRA on seed exchange groups and organizations.

There are several long-established national groups that publish materials and facilitate trades among member seed savers. Seed Savers Exchange (SSE) (1), founded about 1979, is a non-profit organization dedicated to the preservation of heirloom seeds. This organization publishes an annual Yearbook; yearly membership is about $30. This year it is instituting a seed forum on its Web site.

Southern Seed Legacy (SSL) (2) grew out of a 1996 project funded by Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education. Its objective is to keep southern agrobiodiversity alive, not in gene banks, but in the fields and gardens of people. Any registered member of the SSL can receive free seed under the program “Pass Along Southern Seeds.” (See Web site for links to membership and the seed program.)

The nonprofit Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization (ECHO) maintains an extensive seedbank of tropical and subtropical seeds (especially suited to the Caribbean). I often consult their Web site in search of rare and unusual varieties while researching ATTRA inquiries. ECHO charges a nominal fee per packet requested, so it is not a true “seed exchange.” Native Seeds/SEARCH is a similar, non-profit organization. For a list of other organizations that specialize in heirloom seeds, see the Seed Suppliers Database on the ATTRA Web site (www.attra.ncat.org).

SSE and ECHO are good ways to access the biodiversity of tomatoes.

Some commercial companies that specialize in heirloom seeds will exchange seeds for credit. One company that advertises this is J.L. Hudson, Seedsman (www.jlhudsonseeds.net). A number of specialty horticulture magazines also offer seed exchanges for members.

On-line Seed Swapping

In doing an AltaVista search on the terms seed exchange, I was surprised at the number of pages of new, on-line seed exchanges that came up. (You might want to do a search on these terms, as I stopped with page 12.) Some “Seed Swap Links” have been compiled at www.geocities.com/missbanji/seedswapping.html.

GardenWeb (http://forums2.gardenweb.com/forums/exseed) is a well-established on-line exchange. Also see
Backyard Gardener Seed Exchange (www.backyardgardener.com/seedexchange),
SeedSwapper.com, and Yahoo’s SeedExchange group.

I found Web sites for in-state seed trading organizations in Ohio, Texas, Washington, and Massachusetts. You may have some interest in The Ozark Seed Exchange (www.ozarkseedexchange.com), since the Ozarks cover parts of eastern Oklahoma. Unfortunately, its Web site had not been updated since 2005. A North Carolina group—Carolina Seed Traders (seedman.freeservers.com)—may be of special interest to you, as they specialize in on-line exchanges of heirloom tomatoes and chile peppers.

Seed Swap Meets

Several of the above organizations hold annual seed swap meetings, as do GrowSeed (www.growseed.org) and a California group (www.dixonmarket.com).

References:

1) Seed Savers Exchange
3094 North Winn Road
Decorah, Iowa 52101
Ph: (563) 382-5990
Fax: (563) 382-5872
www.seedsavers.org

2) Southern Seed Legacy
Department of Anthropology, 250A Baldwin Hall
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602
ebl@uga.edu
Ph.: (706) 542-1430
www.uga.edu/ebl/ssl
Posted: January 14, 2008

[There are also hidden urls in this post.]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2008/03/03/p5076

[Lots of hidden links]

ATTRA Question of the Week

What can you tell me about organic cantaloupe production?

A.S.
Pennsylvania

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information regarding organic melon/ cantaloupe production.

In general, melons prefer an average soil pH. of 6.0 to 7.0. It is critical that the ground be warm enough for the seeds to germinate! Plant melons 4 to 6 feet apart and sow the seeds 1 inch deep. To get the plants off to a good start, plastic mulch helps to keep the soil warm. They can either be direct seeded or transplanted, but transplanting insures you will have a stronger plant starting in the field.

Organic soil management:
Melons are heavy feeders. It is important to work plenty of compost into the soil before planting. Soil enrichment, rather than plant enrichment is a tenet of organic production. For more information on organic soil management I recommend the ATTRA publications, Sustainable Soil Management and Soil Management: National Organic Program Regulations.

General Management:
Melons need plenty of water during the growing season, so it is a good idea to use soaker hoses or a drip irrigation system. Floating row covers placed over the growing plants help deter insects and create a nice, warm micro climate. Place the row covers on new transplants or a newly seeded bed immediately after planting and remove them once flowers appear on the vines, so insects can pollinate them!

Organic Pest Management for Melons/ Cantaloupe:
The major pests of cantaloupe are the same that afflict Cucurbit crops in general. A good guide for general organic pest management in the Northeast is titled, Resource Guide for Organic Insect and Disease Management. They have a specific section on Cucurbit pest management, which I find to be quite comprehensive.

Cucumber beetle is a major pest of cucurbits in general. Please refer to the ATTRA publication, Cucumber Beetle: Organic and Biorational IPM.

A number of viruses and diseases such as cucumber mosaic (CMV), squash mosaic (SqMV), and watermelon mosaic (WMV-1,2) as well as powdery mildew, downy mildew, and gummy stem blight. These diseases can be controlled by using disease-resistant varieties, having a good crop-rotation system, growing on soils with good air and water drainage and judicious use of organically approved materials such as copper compounds.

The Kaolin Clay based product, Surround WP has show to have significant control with many cucurbit crop insect and disease pests if sprayed 2-3 times per season. The ATTRA Cucumber Beetle publication mentioned above discusses this strategy.

Weed control can be achieved with plastic mulch, which also helps warm the soil in the early summer months of the Northeast.

Marketing and Enterprise Budgets:
In your request, you mentioned the question of profitablility. The most important way of determining this would be to do an enterprise budget for your region. I would encourage you to look at the Pennsylvania State University Agriculture Alternatives Publication on Cantaloupe Production. It includes an Enterprise Budget Template. Some substitutes for extra labor in weed and pest control would need to be accounted for.

Cantaloupes have a good direct market and never seem to have a problem selling at farmers markets. The wholesale prices for cantaloupes can be obtained at the New Farm Organic Price Report section which has weekly wholesale prices. I did confirm that they have cantaloupe prices under the “Fruit” category.

Further Information:
High Mowing Organic Seeds. Melons and Watermelons. 2006 production information. From High Mowing Seeds Web site.
Posted: March 3, 2008

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2008/03/31/p5272

What information can you give me on no-till gardening?

B.C.
North Carolina

Answer: Thank you for contacting ATTRA for information on conservation tillage and no-till gardening.

Organic mulches — for example straw, hay, and leaves — have a long history of use in vegetable production. A common method is to till and prepare the soil as usual, followed by direct seeding and transplanting to establish vegetables, with post-plant top-dressing of organic mulches to control weeds and conserve moisture.

A no-till approach to mulching, however, is the use of permanent, deep mulches. Ruth Stout, who wrote articles for Organic Gardening magazine from 1953 to 1971, and published the classic book, The Ruth Stout No-Work Garden Book, is perhaps the best known advocate of permanent mulching systems for home gardens.

In the 1990s, permanent mulches as a no-till approach to commercial-scale vegetable production received increased attention through the work of Emilia Hazelip, a permaculture teacher and market farmer in southern France. Inspired by the work of Masanobu Fukuoka, the Japanese farmer who advocated a natural system of no-till production using undersown clovers and straw, Ms. Hazelip’s “synergistic gardening” method featured the use of raised beds, plant residues, and companion planting.

About 15 years ago, Emilia Hazelip did a workshop in Arkansas. I was among those who attended and was inspired. I have not, however, managed to duplicate her system. I do continue to use permanent beds in my market garden, and mulch whenever and wherever I can manage to do so. Here are a few personal observations.

You can kill weeds and grass in the areas that you want to plant by using heavy mulch. Cardboard, landscape fabric, newspapers covered with wood chips, or a thick mat of straw are materials that will work. The mulch shades out already established plants, and prevents seeds
in the soil from germinating. Obviously, if the mulch is dense enough to prevent weed seed germination, it will also prevent other seeds from germinating. Depending on the material used, you can remove the mulch after the sod has been killed and plant into the residue. Or you can start vegetables in flats and transplant them into the dead sod. Or you can cut strips or holes through the mulch and plant seeds into those spaces.

Some large seeded vegetables, such as beans, corn, peas, or squash, can send up shoots through light straw mulch. If you plan to direct seed vegetables such as carrots, lettuce, and other small-seeded crops, a clean-tilled planting bed is more conducive to success. You may be able to mulch around these vegetables after they emerge, or depend on the growth of their leaves to shade the soil.

Raised beds provide some benefits, such as better drainage in wet areas, but I have found that permanent beds level with alternating permanent walkways work better for me. Maintenance is less labor intensive and the beds do not dry out as quickly in the summer.

I also use 3’ wide rolls of black landscape fabric to prevent weed growth. After rolling the fabric over a bed, I burn holes in it with a small propane torch. The holes are spaced according to what I am going to plant. Unlike black plastic mulch, the landscape fabric is somewhat permeable to water and air.

Resources:

ATTRA Publications:
Conservation Tillage
Pursuing Conservation Tillage Systems for Organic Crop Production

Hazelip, Emilia. No date. The Synergistic Garden. 13 p.
Posted: March 31, 2008

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ATTRA Question of the Week

What are some resources for information on alternative farming methods?

J.M.
Virginia

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information on alternative farming in Virginia.

Organic Prices

Organic Farmgate and Wholesale Prices – USDA ERS
Monthly organic and conventional farmgate prices for broccoli and carrots; monthly organic and conventional wholesale (first receiver) prices for poultry (broilers) and eggs; monthly organic market (f.o.b. or spot) prices for grain and feedstuffs; monthly organic and conventional wholesale prices for broccoli, carrots, and mesclun mix; and a limited set of organic prices (and corresponding conventional prices) for other fruits and vegetables from the Boston and San Francisco wholesale markets.

NewFarm Organic Price Report
Tracks selected prices from the fruit, vegetable, herbs, and grain sectors, comparing organic prices to conventional prices in markets across the country.

Statistics on Alternative Farming

Industry Statistics and Projected Growth, Organic Trade Association

A comparison of conventional, low-input and organic farming systems: The transition phase and long-term viability. UC SAREP Progress Report 1993-1995.

Organizations and Organic Certifiers

Virginia Association for Biological Farming
Conferences, publications, and links to local and regional organizations.

Appalachian Sustainable Development
Focuses on developing healthy, diverse, and ecologically sound economic opportunities through education and training, and the development of cooperative networks and marketing systems.

Virginia Organic Producers and Consumers Association
Advocacy and information.

North Carolina Crop Improvement Association
3709 Hillsborough St.
Raleigh, NC 27607-5464
Phone: 919-513-3444
www.nccrop.com
Organic certification services.

Pennsylvania Certified Organic
106 School Street, Suite 201
Spring Mills, PA 16875
Phone: 814-422-0251
www.paorganic.org
Organic certification services.

Markets

Consider such marketing avenues as Community Supported Agriculture, farmers markets, on-farm stands and u-pick, food cooperatives, buying clubs, restaurants, and supermarkets. If there is stagnant demand for organic produce in your town and local region, look for opportunities to market crops in areas such as Blacksburg, Lynchburg, and Roanoke.

The ATTRA publications Bringing Local Food to Local Institutions: A Resource Guide for Farm-to-School and Farm-to-Institution Programs, Community Supported Agriculture, Direct Marketing, Farmers’ Markets: Marketing and Business Guide, and Selling to Restaurants are good places to start for learning about these venues.

All publications from ATTRA are available in downloadable PDF or HTML format, or can be ordered free of charge in hard copy by calling 1-800-346-9140.

Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)

CSA consists of a community of individuals who pledge support to a farm operation so that the farmland becomes, either legally or figuratively, the community’s farm, with the growers and consumers providing mutual support and sharing the risks and benefits of food production. Members or shareholders of the farm or garden pledge in advance to cover the anticipated costs of the farm operation and farmer’s salary. In return, they receive shares in the farm’s bounty throughout the growing season, as well as satisfaction gained from reconnecting to the land. Members also share in risks, including poor harvest due to unfavorable weather or pests. Below are several resources to learn more about establishing a CSA farm.

Local Harvest
Maintains database of farms, markets, CSA’s, restaurants, and retails outlets that sell locally grown food. Webpage for creating a farm listing: http://www.localharvest.org/register.jsp

Robyn Van En Center, Community Supported Agriculture
Fulton Center for Sustainable Living
Wilson College
1015 Philadelphia Avenue
Chambersburg, PA 17201-9979
Phone: (717) 264-4141
Maintains a database of CSA farms nationwide as well as numerous resources on CSA’s.

Henderson, Elizabeth and Robyn Van En. 2007. Sharing the Harvest, Revised and Expanded. A Citizen’s Guide to Community Supported Agriculture. White River Jct., Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing. 800.639.4099
Selected topics covered in the book:
• Creating a CSA: The Decision to Form a CSA , Steps to Forming a CSA , Regional CSA Support Groups
• Labor: Family Work, Hiring Help, Interns
• Share Pricing and CSA Budgets, CSA Legal Structures, Distributing the Harvest, Regional Networking for Farm-Based Regional Development

Organic Resources, Reports, and Publications

1 – ATTRA has several free publications to assist you in transitioning to organic production, which can be downloaded from http://www.attra.org/organic.html Titles include:

• Organic Certification Process
• Preparing for an Organic Inspection: Steps and Checklists
• Transitioning to Organic Production (A Sustainable Agriculture Network publication)
• Guide to ATTRA’s Organic Publications

2 – The Transition from Conventional to Low-Input or Organic Farming Systems: Soil Biology, Soil Chemistry, Soil Physics, Energy Utilization, Economics, and Risk. SARE Grant Project Number: SW99-008

3 – Growing for Market Magazine: The monthly publication of Growing for Market provides a lot of practical information, much of which is written by farmers, on production and marketing topics. The contact information for Growing for Market is:

Growing for Market
P.O. Box 3747
Lawrence, Kansas 66046
Phone: 785-748-0605
Toll-free: 800-307-8949
Fax: 785-748-0609
growing4market@earthlink.net
Posted: October 20, 2008

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Each “Question of the Week” is an actual research query submitted by a farmer or rancher and answered by an Agriculture Specialist from the USDA-funded ATTRA program, managed by the National Center for Appropriate Technology.

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2008/11/24/p6724

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What information can you give me on rooftop gardening?

T.M.
Vermont

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information on rooftop gardening.

Rooftop gardens are a unique way to use unused and sterile spaces for food production. There are many different types of rooftop garden systems that can include growing crops in containers, in raised beds, or even greenhouses. Rooftop gardens not only provide food, but also help cool buildings and can improve air quality. Below is an excerpt from an article that was written by two rooftop gardeners in Canada. The garden is part of a university and is located on the roof of an academic building. The authors discuss the many benefits of producing food on roofs, but also share many of the problems and mistakes that they experienced during their growing season. The section of the article that is cited below begins by comparing the differences between traditional food production systems and growing crops on roofs.

The main differences can be summed up in two words: sun and wind. The resulting growing conditions tend to be more extreme (1). Even after a good rain, it takes very little time for the beds to dry out; our solution is mulch, mulch and more mulch. Even so, not everything grows well on the roof. In particular, we have difficulty with spinach, peas and beans. Other heat-loving plants, however, do very well including tomatoes, peppers and basil.

Another significant limitation on the roof is soil fertility. In the spring we recruit unsuspecting (or very generous) volunteers to help us haul compost from The Spoon. We further amend the soil with sheep manure from Tom’s farm, green manure and compost tea. In particular using green manures or compost tea is labour-saving, because it precludes the need to bring more materials up to the roof through the Environmental Sciences Boardroom (the only access to the roof).

Despite these challenges, rooftop gardening provides a number of incentives. We need not worry about pests such as deer. Furthermore, what is a challenge in the summer - namely the warmer, dryer conditions - is an advantage in the spring when we’re able to start gardening a few weeks earlier than the surrounding area. Thus the rooftop climate acts as a season extension.

Fortunately for us, the rooftop garden was a part of the initial building design. Thus, not only is there proper irrigation and drainage, but the building has sufficient load-bearing capabilities to support eighteen inches of saturated soil. To prevent water and roots from compromising the roof there is an impermeable membrane beneath the soil. The garden acts as a temperature moderator for the building below, cooling it down in the summer and insulating it in the winter.

On a larger scale rooftop gardens and sod roofs can do the same in a city. A recent study prepared by Ryerson University for the City of Toronto, found that green roofs significantly reduce stormwater runoff, reduce energy consumption and the reduce the heat island effect. Furthermore, they help to beautify the city and create more natural green spaces in urban areas - for everyone, including the black swallowtails.

Tips for Rooftop Gardening
• Mulch everything.
• Water deeply and often.
• Choose vegetables that suit the environment.
• Use compost tea and green manures to ammend the soil.
• Attempt to create shade, with trellises for example.
• If you don’t have the means for an intensive rooftop garden consider using containers.

Referenced below are several articles on rooftop gardening. There are also a few websites posted below that provide further information. One website posted below (http://rooftopgardens.ca/en) is for the Rooftop Garden Project. This collaborative organization has recently published a manual titled “Guide to Setting Up Your Own Edible Rooftop Garden.” (PDF/2.28MB) This publication contains over 80 pages and is available to download from the website. If you are unable to download the publication, it can be obtained by contacting the organization Alternatives by telephone at (514)982-6606 x2230.

References:

(1). Blyth, Aimee and Leslie Menagh. 2006. From Rooftop to Restaurant – A University Café fed by a Rooftop Garden. British Columbia, Canada: City Farmer.

Resources:

Price, Martin. 1992. The Eave Trough Garden. North Fort Meyers, FL: ECHO.

Price, Martin. 1992. The “Wick” Method of Rooftop Gardening. North Fort Meyers, FL:
ECHO.

Voelz, Jan. 2006. The Characteristics & Benefits of Green Roofs in Urban Environments. Davis, CA: UC Davis Extension.

Wilson, Geoff. Date unknown. Can Urban Rooftop Microfarms be Profitable? Netherlands: RUAF.

Web Resources:

Community Food Security Coalition
http://www.foodsecurity.org

http://www.cityfarmer.org/subrooftops.html

http://www.foodshare.net/toolbox_roof01.htm

The Rooftop Garden Project
http://rooftopgardens.ca/en

Green Roofs for Healthy Cities
http://www.greenroofs.org
Posted: November 24, 2008

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