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ANCIENT WARFARE
The oldest remaining documentation of military campaigns come from the Middle East
where the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hittites, and Persians were the main combatants.
Read about the rise of standing armies and how battles were fought 4000 years ago.
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Continuation of Part I: Ancient Egyptian Military
Fortresses
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Unless an enemy was willing to besiege a stronghold until it surrendered or could surprise its garrison and subdue it, he had to conquer it by forcing the gates, by scaling the walls or by breaching them. Since earliest times measures were taken to prevent these possibilities. The walls were, if not very strong at least of massive thickness and higher than the portable ladders that could be built. The gates were specially protected. Wall tops have decayed completely, but according to drawings there were cornices all around behind which the defenders could take cover. The main rampart was surrounded by an outer wall of lesser height. |
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The Old Kingdom
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A fortress at Abydos, the funerary enclosure of Khasekhemwy, was built to protect the temple of Osiris. It was surrounded by a massive inner wall made of mud bricks, about twelve metres high, six metres thick at the base, about five metres wide at the top, and a five metre tall outer wall with a gap of about three metres between them. This arrangement prevented sappers from attacking the foot of the main wall under cover of portable shelters. Apart from the gates and posterns there were no openings in the walls such as loopholes, machicolations or the like. The main entrance was near the north eastern corner, with further gates in the south and east walls. The gap in the outer wall could be closed with wooden doors. Behind this gate there was a courtyard with another narrow passage leading into a further court surrounded by the main and two retaining walls. One had to pass through a sally-port to gain access to the interior. |
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| This layout gave the defenders the advantage of height for a considerable amount of time. The attackers could be showered with arrows and other projectiles without being able to respond in kind. The entrance in the eastern wall had similar characteristics: narrow passages to slow down the attackers, forced changes in the direction in which they had to proceed, and courtyards surrounded by walls, which were manned by archers. |
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The Middle Kingdom
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By this time the rulers were certainly aware of the need to control the flow of people into their country, be it from the south, the west or the east.
Asiatics who roam the land.
Foes have risen in the East,
Asiatics have come down to Egypt.
The fictional 'Prophesies of Neferti', 11/12th dynasty
The Eastern Border
Amenemhet I began the construction of the Wall of the Prince, a string of fortresses
on the eastern border of the Delta, taking advantage of the watery obstacles of the region.
One will build the Walls-of-the-Ruler,
To bar Asiatics from entering Egypt;
They shall beg water as supplicants,
So as to let their cattle drink.
Then Order will return to its seat,
While Chaos is driven away.
'Prophesies of Neferti', 11/12th dynasty
And in the fictional account of Sinuhe
I came up to the Wall of the Ruler, made to oppose the Asiatics and crush the Sand-Crossers. I took a crouching position in a bush for fear lest watchmen upon the wall where their day's [duty] was might see me.
The Tale of Sinuhe
These fortifications were more or less well defended and maintained over the centuries. Under the coregency of Amenemhet II and Senusret II, the official Hapu had the following inscription made
Made in the year 3, under the majesty of Horus: Seshmutowe (Senusret II), corresponding to the year 35 under the majesty of Horus: Hekenemmat (Amenemhet II), The [....], Hapu came, in order to make an inspections in the fortress of Wawat
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part One, § 616
During the 2nd Intermediate Period they were probably largely abandoned, but the New Kingdom saw their restoration. Under Seti I there seems to have existed a bridge at Sile spanning a crocodile infested waterway.
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The Southern Border
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Senusret III fortified the southern border of Egypt after his conquest of Nubia by building strongholds on either side of the Nile close to the second cataract. |
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 At Semna only the side facing the Nile had any natural protection. The eastern wall, built on top of a rocky slope, was only 15 metres high, while in the other directions the walls reached heights of about 25 metres with ramparts 9 metres thick at ground level jutting out from the main wall. 
At Kumma on the right bank advantage was taken of a natural hillock of about 60 metres width with steep rocky faces. The inner and outer walls follow the contour of the knoll.
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| The entrance is a passage between two ramparts close to each other and thus easily protected by crossfire. The outer wall is at four metres distance from the inner wall for most of its trajectory, apart from two bastion-like salients. The walls were built of mud bricks and reinforced with horizontal wooden beams. The lower part was practically perpendicular, while the upper half was at an angle of twenty degrees to the vertical. The floor inside the wall was raised almost to the level of the top of the ramparts. The outer drystone wall rose to a height of two to three metres and had a gap in its northern side opposite the main gate of the fortress. All these precautions were to no avail: a breach in the southern wall between the two ramparts closest to the river indicates that the fortification was conquered. |
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| Buhen was the main garrison town among these fortresses protecting the Nubian frontier, a few tens of kilometres north of Semna and Kumma, and a string of further forts (Mirgissa just south of the 2nd cataract, Dabenarti, Askut, Shalfak, Uronarti) in between. It had two concentric rings of ramparts, the Egyptian officials living inside the inner walls and the mercenary troops, which were quite possibly native, occupying the outer circle. With its population of several thousand inhabitants it was the administrative centre of the region. It was abandoned by the Egyptians during the 20th dynasty. |
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The New Kingdom
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| Little changed over the centuries as far as weapon and fortification techniques were concerned until the Egyptians came into contact with the far more warlike Asiatics. During their campaigns in Canaan and Retenu they encountered fortified places built of stone, with towers and sometimes even water filled moats. |
| These cities and fortresses easily withstood traditional Egyptian siege techniques. Megiddo for instance fell to Thutmose only after it was beleaguered for seven months. |
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| During the 19th dynasty a number of Canaan-style stone fortresses were erected along the Egyptian eastern frontier. They were called by their Semitic name magadilu (In Hebrew for instance migdal means tower; cf. the biblical Migdol [Jer. 44:1; 46:14] ). |
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No strongholds of this era remain, but the temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu shows a number of features characteristic of New Kingdom fortification. A crenellated outer stone wall 4 metres high protects the whole eastern side. The entrance which passes through a massive bastion, is slightly wider than a metre and flanked by two guardrooms.
The two-towered migdol is 22 metres high, its front 25 metres wide. It surrounds and controls a courtyard which one has to cross in order to enter the temple. Its walls have windows and loopholes, high enough to be inaccessible to the enemy on the ground. There was also a parapet along the edge of the flat roof. |
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| Its foundation wall is five metres high and has a slight inclination. The reason for this is twofold: the wall becomes less vulnerable to sapping and the projectiles dropped from above bounce off the inclined stone wall, changing their direction and hurtling on a horizontal trajectory into the massed enemies, which increases their chance of hitting someone. |
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| At strategic places large depots were built. At Tharu (possibly identical with Sile) on the eastern border these were rectangular structures inside the citadel, covered an area of 12,000 m², had three metre thick mud-brick walls and opened on an adjacent yard. |
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Siege warfare
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Some recorded sieges were prolonged affairs going on for months and even years, and a few of them are important markers in Egyptian history:
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The successful siege of Hatwaret(Avaris) by Ahmose I signalled the end of the Hyksos presence in Egypt. -
The three year siege and taking of Sharuhen in southern Canaan opened the path to start to hegemony over the Levant. -
With the fall of Megido after a seven month siege Canaan came under direct control of the pharaohs.
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Thutmose III: Megiddo ca. 1482 BCE
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| Megiddo lay in the plain of Yizreel, controlling the east-west traffic from the central coastal plains of Canaan to the Lake of Tiberias region and the north-south routes between Akka and the Beth Shean area. The town was seemingly quite sizable, having between 5000 and 10,000 inhabitants. The excavations of the tell of Megiddo uncovered ramparts dating to the Israelite period (half a millennium after Thutmose) of 800 metres length, encompassing an area of about 50,000 m². The city walls were built of bricks and had a thickness of up to ten metres during the early Bronze Age and a height of several storeys, but the whole of Canaan had declined since then, and Thutmose had to overcome a wall of a mere 5 metres thickness and correspondingly smaller height. |
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| The inhabitants of Canaanite cities depended upon wells for their water supply. These were generally at the foot of the growing tells, and thus outside the city walls. The wells were consequently often covered up and tunnels were excavated to make them accessible from the city interior. Most Canaanite cities had only one gate, which had to be wide enough for the passage of chariots and carts. During the battle of Megido the city gate was barred and the walls were manned. When the fleeing charioteers reached the city, the defenders refused to open the gate, preventing the pursuing Egyptian chariotry from gaining access. The Canaanites had to abandon their chariots and were pulled up the city walls. The Egyptian chronicler thought that if only the army of his majesty had not given their heart to plundering the things of the enemy, they would have captured Megiddo at this moment. This may have been wishful thinking. The defenders had seemingly not panicked. There must have been a certain amount of confusion which could have been exploited by the attackers in order to organize an immediate assault by the infantry carrying the necessary equipment such as ladders, on condition that the shock troops had been deployed near-by previously. Whatever the reasons for the failure to storm the town immediately, an assault was deemed unnecessary later on despite the importance of the beleagered rulers.
Then spake his majesty on hearing the words of his army, saying: "Had ye captured this city afterward, behold, I would have given Re this day; because every chief of every country that has revolted is within it; and because it is the capture of a thousand cities, this capture of Megiddo. Capture ye mightily, mightily." James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part II § 432
The Egyptians prepared for a prolonged siege. Most Canaanite leaders were either captured, killed on the battlefield, or managed to escape into Megiddo. The population of the land was left leaderless and did not constitute a danger to a beleagering army. The defenders could not expect any outside intervention. Their water supply was assured; but it was just a question of time before the food reserves were exhausted and the city had to surrender.
His majesty commanded the officers of the troops to go, assigning to each his place. They measured this city, surrounding it with an inclosure, walled about with green timber of all their pleasant trees. His majesty himself was upon the fortification east of this city, inspecting. It was walled about with its thick wall. Its name was made: "Menkheperre Thutmose III-is-the-Surrounder-of-the-Asiatics." People were stationed to watch over the tent of his majesty; to whom it was said: "Steady of heart! Watch." His majesty commanded, saying: "Let not one among them come forth outside, beyond this wall, except to come out in order to knock at the other door of their fortification." Now, all that his majesty did to this city, to that wretched foe and his wretched army, was recorded on each day by its the day's name. Then it was recorded upon a roll of leather in the temple of Amon this day. James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part II § 433
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After seven months of siege the Canaanites surrendered, and the whole region came under the hegemony of the Egyptians. There was little direct rule and Thutmose's policy of generally letting the local kings rule in his name was continued throughout much of the New Kingdom.
Behold, the chiefs of this country came to render their portions, to do obeisance to the fame of his majesty, to crave breath for their nostrils, because of the greatness of his power, because of the might of the fame of his majesty the country came to his fame, bearing their gifts, consisting of silver, gold, lapis lazuli, malachite; bringing clean grain, wine, large cattle, and small cattle for the army of his majesty. Each of the Kode among them bore the tribute southward. Behold, his majesty appointed the chiefs anew. James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part II § 434
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| Gaza, the town closest to their own country, was the centre of the Egyptians' power in Canaan, which suggests that - apart from having to pay tribute - the local kingdoms served mostly as buffer-states between Egypt and a succession of warlike neighbours in the north, Mitanni, Hatti and later, after the decline of Egyptian power in the Levant, Assyria. |
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Ramses II: Dapur ca. 1296 BCE
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| In the years following the battle of Kadesh the whole of Canaan was in turmoil. With Hittite support the local rulers defied the Egyptians. Ramses II set out to suppress them, and he was pressed enough not to waste time with prolonged sieges. Askalon, close to Egyptian border was stormed. A relief at Karnak shows soldiers scaling the walls with the help of ladders and an officer trying to break down the city gate with an axe. The wretched city which his majesty captured, when it rebelled, Askalon. It (the city) says: "It is joy to be subject to thee, and delight to cross thy boundaries. Take thou the heritage, that we may speak of thy valor in all unknown countries.
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt
Part III § 355 In the eighth year of his reign Ramses was reconquering the Galilee. Fortified towns like Bethanath, Merom and Dapur (probably Tabor) were captured. It seems that some Hittites were stationed at Dapur. |
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Said the vanquished of Kheta in praising the Good God: "Give to us the breath that thou givest, O good ruler. Lo, we are under thy sandals; thy terror, it has penetrated the land of Kheta. Its chief is fallen because of thy fame; we are like herds of horses, when the fierce-eyed lion attacks them."
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt
Part III § 359 |
Piye: Hermopolis ca. 715 BCE
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By the time the Ethiopians made their incursions into Egypt, walls, siege tactics and equipment had undergone changes, mostly influenced by developments in the Asiatic East. Early shelters protecting sappers armed with poles trying to breach mud-brick ramparts gave way to battering rams. Enclosures were still erected, preventing surprise sorties. Raised platforms from which the town could be showered with missiles, decreased the advantage the defenders had on their tall ramparts. |
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Behold, [he] besieges Heracleopolis, he has completely invested it, not letting comers-out come out, and not letting goers-in go in, fighting every day. He measured it off in its whole circuit, every prince knows his wall; he stations every man of the princes and rulers of walled towns over his respective portion.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents.
(Chicago: 1906), Part IV § 818 Then they fought against Tetehen, great in might. They found it filled with soldiers, with every valiant man of the Northland. Then the battering-ram was employed against it, its wall was overthrown, and a great slaughter was made among them. of unknown number; also the son of the chief of Me, Tefnakhte. Then they sent to his majesty concerning it, (but) his heart was not satisfied therewith.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents.
(Chicago: 1906), Part IV § 838 He set up for himself the camp on the southwest of Hermopolis (Hmnw) and besieged it daily. An embankment was made, to inclose the wall; a tower was raised to elevate the archers while shooting, and the slingers while slinging stones, and slaying people among them daily.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents.
(Chicago: 1906), Part IV § 842
While some of the Lower Egyptian towns were besieged, Piye decided against this in the case of Memphis after Tefnakht had gone north to raise troops for the defense of the city. The building of a causeway was proposed, as was the erection of siege towers, but Piye took advantage of the fact that the harbour was not as well defended nor the river wall as well manned as the huge ramparts facing north. The ships captured, he seems to have used them for scaling the city wall facing the Nile.
When day broke, at early morning, his majesty reached Memphis. When he landed on the north of it, he found that the water had approached to the walls, the ships mooring at [the walls of] Memphis. Then his majesty saw it was strong, and that the wall was raised by a new rampart, and battlements manned with mighty men. There was found no way of attacking it. Every man told his opinion among the army of his majesty, according to every rule of war. Every man said; "Let us besiege [it] .... ; lo, its troops are numerous." Others said: "Let a causeway be made against it, let us elevate the ground to its walls. Let us bind together a tower; let us erect masts and make the spars into a bridge to it. We will divide it on this (plan) on every side of it, on the high ground and ..... on the north of it, in order to elevate the ground at its walls, that we may find a way for our feet. Then his majesty was enraged against it like a panther; he said: "I swear, as Re loves me, as my father, Amon [who fashioned me], favors me, this shall befall it, according to the command of Amon. This is what men say: '[The Northland] and the nomes of the South, they opened to him from afar, they did not set Amon in their heart, they knew not what he commanded. He (i.e. Amon) made him (i.e. Piankhi) to show forth his fame, to cause his might to be seen.' I will take it like a flood of water. I have commanded .... ..... ..... ." His majesty himself came to line up the ships, as many as there were. His majesty commanded his army (saying): "Forward against it! Mount the walls! Penetrate the houses over the river. If one of you gets through upon the wall, let him not halt before it, [so that] the (hostile) troops may not repulse you. It were vile that we should close up the South, should land [in] the North and lay siege in 'Balance of the Two Lands'." Then Memphis was taken as (by) a flood of water, a multitude of people were slain therein, and brought as living captives to the place where his majesty was.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part IV §§ 861 ff
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Next Tuesday, the continuation of Part I: Ancient Egpytian Military
The Palestine Campaign of Seti I
The Battle of Kadesh
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In Sicily... American forces enter Palermo and isolate 50,000 Italian troops in the west of the island. The Axis mobile forces, including most of the German forces, escape to the northeast corner of the island.