Is Recession Preparing a New Breed of Survivalist? [Survival Today - an On going Thread #2]

May 05th,2008

[nw_arizona_granny]

Yahoo ran an interesting article this morning indicating a rise in the number of survivalist communities cropping up around the country. I have been wondering myself how much of the recent energy crisis is causing people to do things like stockpile food and water, grow their own vegetables, etc. Could it be that there are many people out there stockpiling and their increased buying has caused food prices to increase? It’s an interesting theory, but I believe increased food prices have more to do with rising fuel prices as cost-to-market costs have increased and grocers are simply passing those increases along to the consumer. A recent stroll through the camping section of Wal-Mart did give me pause - what kinds of things are prudent to have on hand in the event of a worldwide shortage of food and/or fuel? Survivalist in Training

I’ve been interested in survival stories since I was a kid, which is funny considering I grew up in a city. Maybe that’s why the idea of living off the land appealed to me. My grandfather and I frequently took camping trips along the Blue Ridge Parkway and around the Smoky Mountains. Looking back, some of the best times we had were when we stayed at campgrounds without electricity hookups, because it forced us to use what we had to get by. My grandfather was well-prepared with a camp stove and lanterns (which ran off propane), and when the sun went to bed we usually did along with it. We played cards for entertainment, and in the absence of televisions, games, etc. we shared many great conversations. Survivalist in the Neighborhood

[nw_arizona_granny]

[has hidden urls]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2005/06/06/p561

Where can I get information about sustainable duck production for eggs?

J.T.
California

Answer: Ducks are very well suited to a sustainable production system, as they are hardy and can maintain themselves with little supplemental feed. However, ducklings will grow faster and reach market weight more quickly if fed a supplemental ration. Ducks kept under free-range conditions where they have access to pasture are generally freer of disease and parasites than those kept in confinement. Dr. Michael Hellwig (see Resources, below) warns against using medicated feed for ducks, especially for ducklings. He also states that ducklings have a very high niacin requirement, so if you are unable to find a commercial feed formulated especially for ducklings, he recommends that you provide them with either niacin or a B-vitamin supplement. Dried nutritional yeast may be used.

Dr. Sandhu and Dr. W. F. Dean of the Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory are good contacts for more information on ducks and have several publications available on areas of duck management.

The Web sites linked below contain information about various breeds of ducks and geese, as well as basic management requirements of waterfowl.

Very little information on marketing waterfowl is available. The most recent information is a market study done in British Columbia in 2002. There is a link below to the section on waterfowl.

A good source of information on the various threatened duck breeds is The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy at Pittsboro, North Carolina.

There are many books available from hatcheries, libraries, book stores, etc. on all aspects of raising ducks, including feeding, flock health, breeding, incubation procedures, and other management practices.

Ducks should be penned at night to protect them from predators. The pen need not be elaborate, but must be predator proof, including the roof. It is easier to catch ducks if they are fed some grain in the pen every night; often they will be waiting before you get there. If you feed them in the pen, then they must have access to water to rinse their bills after eating.

Resources

Michael Hellwig
Cob-Vantress, Inc.
P.O. Box 249
Siloam Springs, AR 72761
501-524-3166

Dr. Sandhu or Dr. W.F. Dean
Cornell University Duck Research Laboratory
P.O. Box 217
Eastport, Long Island, NY 11941
516-325-0600

Holderread’s Waterfowl Farm and Preservation Center
P.O. Box 492
Corvallis, OR 97339
503-929-5338

The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy
P.O. Box 477
Pittsboro, NC 27312
919-542-5704

Anon. 2004. Humane husbandry criteria for ducks. Animal Welfare Institute. 7 p. www.animalwelfare.com/farm/standards/ducks.htm

ATTRA publication:
Pastured Poultry Nutrition (available by calling 1-800-346-914)

Nova Scotia Agriculture and Fisheries. 2001. Ducks; Feeding and watering program for growing ducks; Lighting for pullets and layers: Brooding ducks; Care and storage of duck hatching eggs: Incubation of duck eggs, and Processing ducks. 14 p.

Nowland, Warren. 2001. Duck raising. New South Wales Agriculture. Agfact A5-0.1. November. 32 p. www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/149

View West Marketing Inc. and Zbeetnoff Agro-Environmental Consulting. 2002. Market study on the British Columbia ratite, waterfowl and game bird industries-Final report. January. p. 1-2, 43-56.
www.agsci.ubc.ca/ubcquail/Research/ratite_gamebird_waterfowl_final%20report.pdf (PDF / 752 kb)
Posted: June 6, 2005

[nw_arizona_granny]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2005/07/11/p752

Where can I find information about commercial camel breeding?

F.J.
Wisconsin

Answer: The best source of information on breeding and raising camels is the American Camel Club Resource Directory. Contact Rare Breeds Journal at www.rarebreedsjournal.com/ for information on how to get this directory. Rare Breeds Journal usually has a short article on camels in each issue, and two are cited below.

Also under Resources are links to information from the Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer Protection dealing with Animal Import permits, and the Wisconsin Livestock Identification Consortium on Livestock Premises Registration.

Resources

Anon. 2004. About Camel news, and About the Camel resource directory. Rare Breeds Journal. September/October. p. 11

Moore, Nimit. 1995. Camel husbandry. Rare Breeds Journal. March/April. p. 53-54.

Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer Protection. 2005. Detailed information for: Animal import permits: Llamas and exotic ruminants. License, Permit and Registration Services. 2 p. http://datcp.state.wi.us/index.html

Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer Protection. 2005. Livestock premises registration: Proposed rules. 2 p. http://datcp.state.wi.us/ah/agriculture/animals/premises/pdf/premID_rule_factsheet2.pdf

Wisconsin Livestock Identification Consortium. 2005. Welcome. 2 p. www.wiid.org
Posted: July 11, 2005

[nw_arizona_granny]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2005/08/08/p867

ATTRA Question of the Week

Will feeding Diatomaceous Earth help control internal parasites in goats, and will feeding kelp to them prevent Vitamin B deficiency?

C.H.
Oklahoma

Answer: DE has not been proven to reduce internal parasites. Some farmers think it helps, but others have had no success. Researchers have tried several times to find an effect of DE on internal parasites, and have found none. Diatomaceous Earth does help to control flies, but inhaling DE can damage the lungs.

The article by Joan Burke at the USDA/ARS/Dale Bumpers Small Farm Research Center in Booneville, Arkansas (see below), discusses management of Barber pole worm. Another article discussing a workshop held at Langston University in 2000 provides some details on the problem and the options and goals of sustainable internal parasite control. The writer lives in Oklahoma and may be a valuable contact for you.

Goat producers that use kelp or seaweed in their rations seem happy with the results. According to various Web sites marketing kelp products, kelp may be fed to many different species of animals. However, we were unable to find any scientific studies that show the value of kelp when fed to animals. Enclosed is an article showing the nutrient analysis for one brand of kelp, for your information. The article describes the way kelp is used by a dairy goat producer. As you know, the cost of using kelp as a part of your ration may be prohibitive. You’ll have to weigh the benefits against the expense.

Vitamin deficiencies may be a result of poor-quality forage, and if so, kelp will not be the best solution.

Resources

Beam, Charles. 2000. Sustainable internal parasite control for small ruminants—Workbook report. 2 p.
www.blackbellysheep.org/articles/parasitewksp.htm

Burke, Joan. 2005. Management of Barber pole worm in sheep and goats in the Southern U.S. Small Farm Research Update. February. http://attra.ncat.org/downloads/goat_barber_pole.pdf (PDF / 23 kb)

Stultz, Jennifer. 2004. Sea kelp: A healthy choice for dairy goats? Dairy Goat Journal. May/June. www.dairygoatjournal.com/
Posted: August 8, 2005

[nw_arizona_granny]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2005/12/05/p1463

What organic controls are there for fruit flies?

S.G.
Hawaii

Answer:

First, I would urge you to contact Neil Miller, who works with the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS) researching fruit fly management. He has been working with many organic growers on the big island to help them manage fruit flies. His contact information is:
Agricultural Science Research Technician (insects)
nmiller@pbarc.ars.usda.gov
Phone: (808) 959-4302
Fax: (808) 959-5470
920 Stainback Highway
Hilo, HI 96720

As you are aware, fruit fly control is very difficult, although there are some new products that can be effective. A first step in any pest-management program is to correctly identify the pest, so please collect some adults and have them correctly identified, or collect some infested fruit and rear out the adults to obtain a positive identification. Once this is done, insights into possible management strategies can be gleaned from examining the insect’s life cycle. There are dozens of species of fruit flies, each with a range of preferred hosts and a unique set of behaviors. For example, one of the reasons that a new commercial fruit fly bait (GF 120) is effective against the melon fruit fly is the fact that the adult fly overnights and forages away from the host crop in which it lays its eggs. This can be seen as a “weak link” in its behavior that a management strategy can take advantage of. In this case, a border crop can be planted and sprayed with the bait, and if the border is wide enough, the melon fly will feed on the bait and perish before it has a chance to lay eggs on a host crop. Knowing the host plants and crops of the pest will influence management decisions with respect to where a future crop is planted and what types of crop rotations are used. If applied control measures are needed, proper identification is critical; some control measures work well with some species of fruit fly and less well with others.

Life Cycle and Ecology
The description that follows is a generalized life cycle of fruit flies. The adult female will pierce a thin-skinned fruit (a tomato, for example) and lay one to several eggs. Other females may follow suit, depositing eggs in the same hole. A single female generally has the capacity to lay several hundred eggs over the course of her life (1). The eggs hatch in 2 to 20 days (depending on temperature) and the larvae burrow into the fruit to feed for 10 to 40 days. At this time, the larvae will be roughly ¼-inch long and will leave the fruit and pupate in the top 1 to 2 inches of soil. Adult flies will emerge in 10 to 50 days. These times are very temperature-dependent, and the whole life cycle can be completed in two and a half weeks under ideal conditions.

Fruit flies are very mobile as adults and some species are strong fliers (e.g., Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett), the melon fly). Sterile males of the medfly, Ceratitus capitata, have been found 24 miles from their release point.

Likely Species of Fruit Flies
It’s likely that one of three species is attacking your crop. The melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett), has more than 80 hosts and is a major pest of beans, bittermelon, Chinese wax gourd, cucumbers, edible gourds, eggplant, green beans, hyotan, luffa, melons, peppers, pumpkins, squashes, togan, tomatoes, watermelon, and zucchini (2). The oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), attacks more than 300 cultivated and wild fruits including Annona (cherimoya, atemoya, sugar apple), avocado, banana, bittermelon, citrus, coffee, guava, macadamia, mango, papaya, passion fruit, peppers, persimmon, and tomato (3). This pest will apparently breed in all fleshy fruits. On Oahu it is estimated that 95% of the oriental fruit flies develop on guava, Psidium guajava L. (4). They do not attack cucurbit crops such as cucumber and squash. The last fruit fly suspect is the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann). This pest attacks more than 260 different fruits, flowers, vegetables, and nuts, with a preference for thin-skinned, ripe, succulent fruits (5).

Management Options
Once the female fruit fly has deposited eggs in the fruit, it’s too late for managing the pest. Therefore, focus should be directed at preventing egg-laying, either by mechanical means such as bagging the fruit, or by use of processed kaolin clay (known as particle film barriers), or by removing sources of adult flies (sanitation practices). Use of insecticidal baits to kill the adult female before she deposits her eggs is discussed below, but may not be acceptable under organic production guidelines.

Sanitation is important in the control of any fruit fly. All dropped and prematurely ripe fruit, as well as small fruit suspected of being infested, should be destroyed to prevent the larvae from developing into adult fruit flies. The fruit may be fed to livestock (but must be eaten before any larvae have a chance to emerge), composted in a well-managed compost pile (so the heat will destroy the larvae), or buried 2 feet below the soil surface so that adult flies will not be able to emerge.

Bagging (6): Each fruit is enclosed in an appropriately sized bag tied around the fruit stem. Alternatively, newspaper of an appropriate size can be rolled to enclose the fruit, then tied both around the fruit stem and at the free end.

Bagging should begin when the fruit is small, shortly after the flower parts have fallen. This method of control is more adapted to small plantings (1 to 25 plants) than to large ones (quarter-acre or more). Although bagging the fruit is the most certain method of control it is a laborious process and requires attention at regular intervals (10 to 14 days) to keep the young fruit covered. Also, this procedure will injure some of the fruit unless they are handled carefully.

Particle Film Barrier: Surround® WP is a commercially available formulation of processed kaolin clay. There is some evidence that it can be an effective deterrent to oviposition (egg laying) by some species of fruit flies (Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata, Natal fruit fly, Ceratitis rosa, and marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra, as well as the apple maggot/blueberry maggot, Rhogoletis pomonella) (7). The mode of action is hypothesized to be non-recognition of the host because of changes in the color and texture of the fruit that result from the kaolin clay application (7).

For more information about Surround, contact:
John Mosko
Marketing manager, Crop Protectants
Engelhard Corporation
732-205-7140
email: john.mosko@engelhard.com

Insecticides: Diatect V is a mixture of silicon dioxide (diatomaceous earth—82.45%) + pyrethrin (.5%) and is acceptable for use in organic production systems. Organic Plus, a similar premix of silicon dioxide (diatomaceous earth—83.2%) + pyrethrin (.2%) + piperonyl butoxide (1.1%), is registered for use on some fruits for control of fruit flies and other pests, but is not likely be acceptable for certified organic production due to the presence of piperonyl butoxide. Pyrellin, a premix of pyrethrin (.6%) + rotenone (.5%), is also registered for use on some fruits for control of fruit flies and other pests (8) but you should check with your certifier to see if its use is acceptable for certified organic production.

There are some new pesticides developed by Dow Ag-Chemicals, based on spinosad, that are approved for use in organic systems. Spinosad is the common name of a mixture of spinosyn A and spinosyn D, two molecules derived naturally from a bacterium through fermentation (9). Entrust is an organically approved formulation of spinosad. There is also a fruit fly bait based on the same pesticide now being marketed under the name GF120. A researcher at Washington State University found that the cherry fruit fly could be effectively controlled using a combination of a wettable powder formulation of Entrust applied at 10-day intervals, combined with use of the GF 120 bait spray. GF-120 bait treatments were applied weekly, and reapplied after rain on some of the sites.

Baits: As noted in the previous paragraph, Dow Ag-Chemicals has developed a fruit fly bait, GF120. This bait, consisting of a small amount of spinosad mixed with sugar and a protein byproduct of corn, is geared toward tropical fruit-fly species. The baits are applied to broadleaf plants that serve as a refuge for fruit-fly adults (5). Its effectiveness on various species of fruit flies is now being researched in Hawaii and other locations.

Hawaii is currently involved in a fruit-fly suppression program and is using this bait as one of the tools in the effort. The Hawaiian company that will be distributing this product is United Horticultural Supplies; contact Reginald Hasegawa at 808-935-7191.

The bait comes as a concentrate and when diluted according to directions is 80 parts per million (ppm) spinosad (this is equivalent to roughly .01 oz/acre deposition rate of spinosad). This bait is highly toxic to bees (9) and there is some phytotoxicity on cucumber (10). Your organic certifier can tell you whether it is acceptable for certified organic production.

For more information on Hawaii’s fruit-fly suppression program, contact:
Dr. Roger Vargas
Areawide Suppression Program
808-959-4329

Another bait, developed under the name SureDye™, is not yet commercially available, but is reportedly in the EPA registration process (10). SureDye™ is specifically formulated for fruit flies, and is reportedly non-toxic to non-target organisms. The active ingredients are red dye #28 and yellow dye #8. Once ingested, the dyes act as poisons in the presence of light and kill the insect. Unfortunately, SureDye™ is not yet registered for commercial use. Again, your organic certifier can advise you on the acceptability of this product once it becomes available commercially.

Parasitic nematodes: Another option is the use of parasitic nematodes to treat the ground around plants where fruit-fly larvae have dropped to pupate. The nematodes will attack the larvae and pupae as they tunnel into the ground. For a listing of retail suppliers of beneficial organisms, see www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/bensup.pdf.

A free copy of Suppliers of Beneficial Organisms in North America can be obtained by writing:
California Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Pesticide Regulation
Environmental Monitoring and Pest Management Branch
1020 N. Street, Room 161
Sacramento, CA 95814-5624

References:

1) Metcalf, Flint, and Metcalf. 1962. Destructive and Useful Insects. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. p. 812-14.

2) Mau, R. F.L, and J. L. M. Kessing. 1991. Melon fly. Accessed April 2002. www.extento.hawaii.edu/Kbase/crop/Type/bactro_c.htm

3) Mau, R. F.L, and J. L. M. Kessing. 1992. Oriental fruit fly. Accessed April 2002. www.extento.hawaii.edu/Kbase/crop/Type/bactro_d.htm

4) Newell, I. M. and F. H. Haramoto. 1968. Biotic Factors Influencing Populations of Dacus dorsalis in Hawaii. Proc. Hawaiian Entomol. Soc. 20(1): 81-139.

5) Mau, R. F.L, and J. L. M. Kessing. 1992. Mediterranean Fruit Fly. Accessed April 2002. www.extento.hawaii.edu/Kbase/crop/Type/ceratiti.htm

6) Pena, J., and F. Johnson. 1998. Website. Insect Management in Papaya. 1999 Insect Management Guide, Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Date first printed: October 1993. Revised: October 1998. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/scripts/htmlgen.exe?DOCUMENT_IG074

7) Mosko, John. 2002. Technical representative for Englehard Corporation. Personal communication.

8) Pena, J and F. Johnson. October 1993. Revised: October 1998. Reviewed: November 2001. Accessed April 2002. Insect Management in Guava. University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IG072

9) Anonymous. 1999. Spinosad: Questions and Answers. USDA Animal, Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Accessed April 2002. www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/plant_health/content/printable_version/faq_phspinosad.pdf

10) McQuate, Grant. 2002 personal communication. USDA ARS Tropical Fruit Research Station

11) Timothy J. Smith, Washington State University Extension, North Central Washington
300 Palouse, Wenatchee, WA 98801 (509) 667-6540; smithtj@wsu.edu
www.ncw.wsu.edu/treefruit/documents/2005CFFResultsTJSmithOrganic.pdf

Additional reading:

Prokopy, R.J., Miller, N.W., Pinero, J., Oride, L.K., Chaney, N.L., Revis, H., Vargas, R.I. 2005. How Effective Is Gf-120 Fruit Fly Bait Spray Applied To Border Area Sorghum Plants For Control Of Melon Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae)?. Florida Entomologist. 87:3. P354-360.
Posted: December 5, 2005

[nw_arizona_granny]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/01/23/p1692

How do I manage a white clover living mulch for weed suppression for my squashes and melons?

J.C.
New York

Answer: Here is some information on living mulches in general, along with some information specific to cucurbits.

Part One: Introduction to Living Mulches

A living mulch is a cover crop that is intercropped with an annual or perennial cash crop, primarily for weed suppression and as a soil management practice. Living mulches reduce soil erosion, suppress weeds, increase soil organic matter, improve trafficability, increase water infiltration, and increase nutrient cycling. Legumes used as living mulches fix nitrogen from the air and can replace or reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizers. Some living mulches also provide habitat for beneficial insects.

Establishment Methods

There are three basic ways to establish a living mulch:
[1] drilling or broadcasting a cover crop together with the primary crop at planting;
[2] drilling (interseeding) or broadcasting (overseeding) a cover crop at the last cultivation;
[3] drilling a cash crop into mechanically or chemically suppressed strips of a living cover crop.

Living Mulch Systems and Methods of Suppression

When managed incorrectly, living mulches can act like weeds and compete with the main crop for light, water and nutrients. Especially in low-growing vegetables—such as vine crops—an overgrown living mulch can interfere with flowering and fruit development. Thus, management of a living mulch is geared to getting good ground coverage and then suppressing its growth through chemical or mechanical means.

The first 4 to 6 weeks after planting is the most critical growth period for most crops. During this time, plant competition can reduce yields most severely, and living mulch growth may require suppression. Using a method of suppression becomes most critical where soil moisture is limited. When a vegetable crop is planted directly into strips of live vegetation, methods of suppression prior to planting may include application herbicides (at sublethal rates), mowing, tillage, flaming, and a technique known as rolling.

When an intercrop is established at planting or by overseeding, methods of suppression may include time of establishment (in the case of overseeding), use of dwarf type cover crops, application of herbicides at sublethal rates, and light mechanical cultivation.

Dying Mulch/Living Mulch Weed Suppression

A dying mulch is a cover crop planted out of season that puts on some growth—suppressing weeds as a living mulch—and then dies back out on its own without requiring the use of herbicides, mowing, or tillage to knock it back. Winter rye—planted in the spring—has been used successfully in this manner in several agronomic and horticultural crops.

Here’s how a dying mulch has been used by several Midwestern vegetable growers. In mid-spring, the field is overseeded with winter rye at 120 lbs. per acre to establish a living mulch. In order for winter rye to tiller and produce a seed head, it requires a period of cold treatment, or vernalization. Since it never receives vernalization and thus never tillers, it remains short and eventually just “cooks out” in summer, leaving a weed-suppressive duff.

The success of this system is dependent on proper timing and good luck. Timing is critical to get the rye established early enough to promote germination when the soil temperatures are still relatively cool, but at the same time, late enough that a cold spell is avoided. Since vernalization can occur when the rye is exposed to only 10 days of 45° F. night temperatures, a sudden spring cold snap can result in the cover crop performing in an other-than-expected manner.

Choice of Living Mulch Species

Cover crops, like any other crop, require fairly specific growing conditions. Both grasses and legumes are being used as living mulches. Of these, there are both cool season and warm season types to choose from.

Factors affecting choice of living mulch cover crop include the primary crop, rotation sequence, growing season, method of establishment, and intended use (i.e., dying mulch, winter killed mulch, etc.). Most important in the selection of a living mulch is that the plant species chosen be vigorous enough to provide the benefits of a cover crop, but not so vigorous that competition with the main crop cannot be managed without killing it. The region of the country (e.g., agroclimatic zone) is also of great importance in selecting a living mulch. For example, subclover is grown as a winter annual legume in the South, but as a spring annual in the North.

Some grass species used as living mulches include perennial ryegrass, dwarf ryegrass, turf type fescues, millet, and out-of-season winter cereal grains. Some legume species used as living mulches include white clover, hairy vetch, subterranean clover, Dutch white clover, dwarf English trefoil, Korean lespedeza, and crimson clover. Broad-leaved cover crops that have potential as living mulches include phacelia, buckwheat, and various crucifers. Rapid cycling brassica germplasm is under development at the University of Minnesota. These are low-growing, short-season brassicas that function as smother crops early in the growing season, then mature early and leave a weed suppressive duff.

ATTRA’s Overview of Cover Crops and Green Manures publication is a useful resource. It reviews the benefits and uses of cover crops and provides a number of useful resources on cover crops and seed sources.

Part Two: Notes on Living Mulches for Cucurbits (Squash and Melons)

In New England, drilling clover in between the rows after cucurbit crop establishment is a common way to raise cucurbits with living mulches, especially with winter squashes.

In fact, one Cornell research report—”Lana vetch / winter rye living mulches in organic pumpkins: competition, weed suppression, and insect pest mitigation effects”(see below)—concluded that after-seeded living mulches were the most promising approach to living mulches in pumpkins.

The following selected resources address living mulches and cover crops for cucurbits, including a few select items geared to the Northeastern United States:

1. Cover Crop and Mulch Studies
Carrington Research Extension Center
North Dakota State University
www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/oakes/covcrop.htm

Pumpkin cover crop and living mulch study
2004 2003 2002 2001

2. Evaluation of Living and Synthetic Mulches in Zucchini for Control of Homopteran Pests
Daniel L. Frank, Dept of Entomology and Nematology, Univ of Florida
http://fruitnvegipm.ifas.ufl.edu/cucurbits.htm
http://fruitnvegipm.ifas.ufl.edu/VegetablePresentation.pdf
_ 46-page PDF

Aphid feeding

Aphid-transmitted viruses

Investigate and compare the effects of reflective and living mulch on the population dynamics of homopteran pests, their associated natural enemies, and insect-transmitted plant impairments.

Investigate the advantages of using reflective and living mulch over standard bare-ground or white mulching systems.

5 Treatments:–White–Reflective–Clover–Buckwheat–Bare-ground

Living mulch treatments had higher natural enemy populations than the synthetic mulch and bare ground treatments.

Synthetic mulches had significantly higher yields than those grown with living mulch or on bare ground.

Synthetic mulches cost more.

Living mulches require more time and maintenance.

Harvesting easier on synthetic mulches.

3. Cucurbit Pest Management — Weed Management & Cover Cropping
Iowa State, Colorado State, Univ of Minnesota project
www.public.iastate.edu/~khwong/cpm/weedManagement.html

We investigated the use of a hairy vetch/rye cover crop as an organic nitrogen source and as a living mulch to control weed.

The experiment was conducted at the ISU Horticulture Research Station and at the Muscatine Island Research Station. Treatments included a hairy vetch/rye cover crop with sidedressed chemical nitrogen, the cover crop alone, the nitrogen treatment alone, and a control without the cover crop or nitrogen addition.

The cover crop was planted in the fall prior to the muskmelon season (40 lb/A vetch and 30 lb/A rye), and was killed by rolling the crop with a cultipacker after flowering. A slit was made in the mulch using a chisel tooth, and transplants were inserted.

Cover cropping appears to be a successful, sustainable strategy for weed management.

4. Watermelon Cover Cropping with Wheat and Barley in Niigata, Japan
Agroecological Case Study
www.agroecology.org/cases/watermeloncover.htm

5. Selection of Vegetables for Intercropping as a Pest Management Strategy
Mark G. Wright & Michael P. Hoffmann
Department of Entomology, Insectary Building, Cornell University, Ithaca
www.organic.cornell.edu/research/tsfsumms/organicpdfs/7intercrop.pdf
_ 10-page PDF

Organic Agriculture at Cornell University research report

6. Lana vetch / winter rye living mulches in organic pumpkins: competition, weed suppression, and insect pest mitigation effects
www.organic.cornell.edu/research/tsfsumms/organicpdfs/5ryevetch.pdf
Organic Agriculture at Cornell University research report

7. Guide to the Expert Farmers’ DACUM Chart for “Manage Crop Rotation System”
www.neon.cornell.edu/pdfs/DACUMcroprotation.pdf
_ 27-page PDF

NEON — Northeast Organic Network

8. Cover Crops and Green Manures
Vern Grubinger, Univ of Vermont
www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/factsheets/covercrops.html

Resources:

Coleman, Eliot. 1989. Fertilizer from the garden. Mother Earth News. September-October. p. 112, 114, 116-120.

Foulds, Chantal. 1989. Interseedings in vegetable production. REAP Canada. Vol. 2, No. 4. p. 6-7, 14.

Foulds, C.M., K.A. Stewart, and R.A. Samson. 1991. On farm evaluation of legume interseedings in broccoli. p. 179-180. In: W.L. Hargrove (ed.) Cover Crops for Clean Water. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, IA.

Grubinger, Vernon P. 1990. Living Mulch for Vegetable Production. University of Vermont Extension Service, Windham County. 14 p.

Hofstetter, Bob. 1993. Smother crops: Plant a grain in the “wrong” season for the right cover. New Farm. May/June. p.39-41.

Jurchak, Thomas. 1989. Growing vegetables with the living mulch. American Vegetable Grower. May. p. 22-25.

Lanini, Tom. 1989. Subclovers as living mulches for managing weeds in vegetables. California Agriculture. November December. p. 25-27.

Further Reading on Living Mulches:

Anon. 1993. Alternate vegetable systems tested in new “living lab.” Innovations in Sustainable Agriculture. Fall. p. 1, 6-7.

Butler, Jack D. 1986. Grass interplanting in horticulture cropping systems. HortScience. Vol. 21., No. 3. p. 394-397.

Brown, Martha. 1990. Cover crops: soil and water management options. The Cultivar. Winter. p. 1-2, 15.

Brown, Martha. 1990. Cover crop study concludes second year. The Cultivar. Summer. p. 3-4.

Cook, Tom. 1982. The potential of turfgrasses as living mulches in cropping systems. p. 23-35. In: J.C. Miller, and S.M. Bell (ed.) Crop Production Using Cover Crops and Sods as Living Mulches. International Plant Protection Center, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.

Cramer, Craig. 1988. High value hillsides. The New Farm. September-October. p. 54-55, 59.

DeGregorio, R.E., and R.A. Ashley. 1985. Screening living mulches and cover crops for weed suppression in no till sweet corn. Proceedings of the Northeast Weed Society. Vol. 39. p. 80-84.

Eberlein, C.V., C.C. Sheaffer, and V.F. Oliveira. 1992. Corn growth and yield in an alfalfa living mulch system. Journal of Production Agriculture. Vol. 5, No. 3. p. 332-339.

Elkins, D.I. et al. 1983. Living mulch for no till corn and soybeans. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. Vol. 26. p. 431-433.

Enache, A.J. 1989. Weed Control by Subterranean Clover (Trifolium subterraneum) Used as a Living Mulch. Ph.D. Dissertation. Rutgers University. 137 p. Dissertation Abstr. Int’l., Volume: 50 11, Section: B, page 4825.

Enache, A.J., and R.D. Ilnicki. 1990. Weed control by subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) used as a living mulch. Weed Technology. Vol. 4, No. 3. p. 534-538.

Enache, A.J., and R.D. Ilnicki. 1993. Chapter 19, Subterranean clover: Nitrogen contribution. p. 215-226. In: M.G. Paolettie, W. Foissner, and D. Coleman (ed.) Soil Biota, Nutrient Cycling, and Farming Systems. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.

Fischer, A.J. 1988. Intra and Interspecific Interference Between Sweet Corn (Zea mays L.) and a Living Mulch of White Clover (Trifolium repens L.). Ph.D. Dissertation. Oregon State University. 151 p. Dissertation Abstr. Int’l., Volume: 50 05, Section: B, page 1697.

Fischer, Albert, and Larry Burrill. 1993. Managing interference in a sweet corn white clover living mulch system. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. Vol. 8, No. 2. p. 51-56.

Grossman, Joel. 1993. Fighting insects with living mulches. IPM Practitioner. October. p. 1-8.

Grubinger, Vernon. 1989. Augmenting a Low Rate of Nitrogen Fertilization for Sweet Corn Production with Strip Rototilled White Clover Living Mulch (Fertilizer, Corn, Clover). Ph.D. Dissertation. Cornell University. 170 p. Dissertation Abstr. Int’l., Volume: 50 07, Section: B, page 2682.

Grubinger, Vernon P., and Peter L. Minotti. 1990. Managing white clover living mulch for sweet corn production with partial rototilling. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. Vol. 5, No. 1. p. 4-12.

Ilnicki, R.D., and A.J. Enache. 1992. Subterranean clover living mulch: an alternative method of weed control. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. Vol. 4. p. 249-264.

Nicholson, A.G., and H.C. Wien. 1983. Screening of turfgrasses and clovers for use as living mulches in sweet corn and cabbage. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science. Vol. 108. p. 1071-1076.

Reiners, S. and O. Wickerhauser. 1995. The use of rye as a living mulch to control weeds in bell pepper production. HortScience. July. p. 892.

Sarrantonio, Marianne. 1992. Opportunities and challenges for the inclusion of soil improving crops in vegetable production systems. HortScience. Vol. 27, No. 7. p. 754-758.

Schonbeck, Mark, Judy Browne, and Ralph DeGregorio. 1990. Cover crops for weed control in lettuce. New Alchemy Quarterly. Fall. p. 8-11.

Schonbeck, Mark, Peggy Elder, and Ralph DeGregorio. 1995. Winter annual cover crops for the home food garden. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture. Vol. 6. No. 2-3. p. 29-53.

Scott, Thomas W., and R.F. Burt. 1985. Cover Crops and Intercrops for New York. Cornell Field Crops Fact Sheet 452. 4 p.

Vrabel, T.E., P.L. Minotti, and R.D. Sweet. 1981. Legume sods as living mulches in sweet corn. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting &—Northeast Weed Science Society. Vol. 35. p. 158-159.

Vrabel, Thomas Edward. 1983. Effect of Suppressed White Clover (Trifolium repens L.) on Sweet Corn (Zea mays L. var. Rugosa Bonaf.) Yield and Nitrogen Availability in a Living Mulch Cropping System. Ph.D. Dissertation. Cornell University. 176 p. Dissertation Abstr. Int’l., Volume: 44 06, Section B, page 1670.

Waters, M., and Ilnicki, R.D. 1990. Use of subterranean clover as mulch for weed control in summer squash. Proceedings of the Northeast Weed Science Society. Vol. 44. p. 58.

Wiles, L.J. et al. 1989. Analyzing competition between a living mulch and a vegetable crop in an interplanting system. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science. Vol. 114, No. 6. p. 1029-1034.

William, R.D. 1987. Living Mulch Options for Precision Management of Horticultural Crops. Extension Circular 1258. Oregon State University Cooperative Extension Service. 5 p.
Posted: January 23, 2006

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/02/06/p1768

What are some of the basics of sustainable meat rabbit production?

J.H.
Kansas

Answer: This information is excerpted from a forthcoming ATTRA publication on rabbit production.

Rabbit meat is high in protein and low in fat, cholesterol, and sodium when compared to most of the meats eaten in the U.S. (1). The meat rabbit industry in the U.S. was significant around the time of World War II, but since then has declined. However, rabbit meat has great potential to feed people in developing countries and could be promoted in the U.S. as a healthful, natural meat.

Breeds

Two medium-size breeds, the New Zealand White (NZW) and the Californian, are the most important for meat production. The NZW is considered the best breed overall, considering mothering ability and carcass characteristics. However, crossing male Californians to female NZWs and then breeding the female from this cross back to male Californians results in larger litter sizes and heavier fryers than using straight NZWs.

Housing

Housing depends on the scale of the operation; rabbits can be raised on a commercial or backyard scale. Practical Rabbit Housing (2) is a useful reference for designing housing, listed below. An experienced producer with a stable market may want to build a specialized building. Commercial rabbitries usually house animals in all-wire cages suspended above the ground. On a backyard scale, a hutch can be built to house a few animals outside.

Rabbits are ideally kept where the temperature can be maintained at 62°F. In any type of building, ventilation is very important in order to reduce ammonia buildup and to help the animals stay cool during hot periods.

While building or designing rabbit housing, remember that rabbits tend to gnaw, especially on wood. If plastic water lines are used to deliver water, attach them to the outside of the cage so the rabbits cannot chew them.

Feeding

Rabbits eat only plants and are classified as non-ruminant herbivores. They recycle feed by re-ingesting the cecotropes. Cecotropes are small particles of digested food that collect in the cecum (hindgut), which the rabbit voids once a day and consumes directly from the anus. Cecatropes are sometimes called “night feces” and look softer than the round, hard pellets normally seen.

Rabbits are usually fed a commercial pelleted diet that is balanced in the necessary nutrients (protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals). These diets contain alfalfa, grain (barley, wheat mill by-products), protein supplements (soybean meal), vitamins and mineral supplements.

If your herd is small, it may be economical to reduce the amount of pellets and feed rabbits some available greens. Greens and succulents include fresh legumes (alfalfa, clover), grasses, vegetables (lettuce, celery), roots and tubers (carrots, potatoes), weeds (dandelions) and comfrey. Rabbits may be pastured in outdoor pens placed on the ground in order to harvest their own fresh forage.

Instead of a commercial pelleted diet, producers can mix their own feedstuffs, especially if they grow or purchase their own feed ingredients. If you don’t have a recipe you trust, ration-balancing ensures that diets contain the correct amount of nutrients (protein, energy, vitamins, minerals, etc.) for rabbits during different stages of growth or reproduction. The book Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition (3) has a section that deals with ration-balancing and nutrient requirements.

Reproduction

Rabbits do not have a heat cycle like many animals do—rabbits ovulate after mating. Birth of the kits (kindling) occurs in 31 days with NZWs. One can rebreed does about one and a half months after kindling for four to five litters per year. Kits are generally weaned at 30 days of age; however, if the doe is rebred at one and a half months after kindling, the kits can be left with their mothers for up to two months. A good doe sends an average of 50 fryers a year to market. Young rabbits (fryers) should be separated by sex after 12 weeks to prevent fighting and inbreeding.

Management

It is important to keep production records in order to know when to carry out crucial activities such as putting in the nestbox and to aid in choosing the best replacement stock. Ear tags or tattoos are necessary with large numbers of rabbits.

Sanitation is very important. When fur and dust accumulate on cages, they can be removed by burning with a propane torch. Nestboxes should be cleaned and disinfected after use (one ounce of bleach to one gallon water is a good cleaning solution).

Health

A commonly encountered disease is mastitis, or inflammation of the mammary glands, which is treatable with antibiotics. The bacteria Pasteurella causes snuffles and pneumonia; chronic Pasteurella sufferers should be culled from the herd. Rabbits showing overgrown teeth, those developing sorehocks, and poor producers should also be culled. The Rabbit Handbook contains more information on diseases.

If antibiotics are used to treat disease, a withdrawal period is required before slaughter to ensure residues have cleared the animal’s system. Since antibiotics and hormones are not routinely used in rabbit production, the meat is especially appropriate for natural and organic markets.

Processing

Rabbits that receive good nutrition reach a market weight of four to five pounds liveweight within 10–12 weeks and are marketed as fryers. It may take longer to reach market weight with poorer nutrition.

Rabbit processing generally consists of stunning or killing the animal, hanging it to bleed, removing the head, removing feet and tails, removing skins, eviscerating, washing the carcass, chilling the carcass in a water tank or refrigerated room, aging the carcass under refrigeration, and packaging. The Rabbit Handbook discusses home butchering.

If you are planning to establish a USDA-inspected plant, contact the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service. There is very little information available on building plans for rabbit processing.

The federal inspection of rabbit meat is voluntary. Some states only permit the sale of rabbit if it is inspected under state laws. Contact the department of agriculture for information on regulations in your state.

Marketing

Marketing rabbits can be difficult and frustrating, because there are few processors that buy live rabbits and supply and demand can be unstable. In the wintertime, producers may have a more difficult time raising rabbits and therefore supply is limited; however, in the summertime, supply can become glutted. A market report is listed at the following website. www.prma.org/marketreport/marketreport.pdf.

The U.S. does not have a history of rabbit consumption. However, there is untapped potential, especially for the natural and organic markets. At the same time, the rabbit industry has many challenges in the U.S. Rabbit meat is high in cost compared to other livestock and should be considered a luxury meat. Feasibility studies and business planning is needed if you are planning to invest money in rabbit production.

In many ways, rabbits are more suited for small-scale production than large-scale, industrial production.

Further resources

For further questions about raising rabbits, contact Dr. Steve Lukefahr (4) at Texas A & M University – Kingsville, Dr. James McNitt (5) of the Small Farm Family Resource Development Center at Southern University, or Dr. Mark Grober (6) at California State University. Dr. Lukefahr’s international rabbit research program is described at http://users.tamuk.edu/kfsdl00/rabb.html . They are experts in the field and willing to answer questions. The state-of-the-art book Rabbit Production (7) covers all areas of production. Ordering information for the book is included below but you can also ask your library to borrow it via Interlibrary Loan.

Useful organizations include:

• The American Rabbit Breeders’ Association (8), which publishes a membership directory of rabbit breeders and Domestic Rabbits, a show-oriented magazine.
• The Professional Rabbit Meat Association (9) provides information on raising rabbits for meat and has a newsletter and website www.prma.org/
• The American Branch of the World Rabbit Science Association has a website at http://arnica.csustan.edu/abwrsa/ Dr. McNitt is secretary/treasurer and can provide additional information. In addition the World Rabbit Science Association has a website at http://world-rabbit-science.org/.
• The Animal Welfare Institute (10) provides welfare guidelines for rabbit care. The guidelines are available at www.awionline.org/farm/standards/rabbitsprint.htm.

In addition to the referenced materials, there are many books and pamphlets available on rabbit production. University Extension services often have circulars on rabbit production available upon request, with some of these geared to 4-H rabbit projects.

References:

1) Lukefahr, S.D. 1993. Research study confirms that rabbit meat is low in cholesterol.
Domestic Rabbits. May-June. p. 22–25.

2) McNitt, James. 1996. Practical Rabbit Housing. Southern University and A&M College,
Baton Rouge, LA. Title page, table of contents, p. 1–23.

3) Cheeke, P.R. 1987. Rabbit Feeding and Nutrition. Academic Press, Orlando, FL. 376 p.

4) Dr. Steve Lukefahr
Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences
Texas A & M University
Campus Box 156
Kingsville, TX 78363
512-593-3699
s-lukefahr@tamuk.edu

5) Dr. James McNitt
Rabbit Production Specialist
Small Farm Family Resource Development Center
Southern University and A&M College
Box 11170
Baton Rouge , LA 70813
Telephone (225) 771 2262
Fax (225) 771 4464
james_mcnitt@suagcenter.com

6) Dr. Mark Grober
Biological Sciences
California State University, Stanislaus
Turlock, CA 95382
mgrobner@athena.csustan.edu
209-667-3628

7) McNitt, James I. 2000. Rabbit Production. 8th Edition. The
Interstate Printers and Publishers, Inc., Danville, IL. 493 p.
Available from:
Interstate Publishers, Inc.
P.O. Box 50
Danville, IL 61834-0050
800-843-4774
217-446-9706 fax

8) American Rabbit Breeders Association
1925 S. Main St.
Box 426
Bloomington, IL 61702
309-664-7500
309-664-0941 fax
www.arba.net/

9) Professional Rabbit Meat Association
Denise Konzek, Secretary-Treasurer
627 S. Union
Kennewick, WA 99336
rabbitmom2@webbworks.com
www.prma.org/store/application_form.htm

10) Animal Welfare Institute
P.O. Box 3650
Washington, DC 20027
703-836-4300
703-836-0400 fax
awi@awionline.org

Resources:

Belanger, J.D. 1993. Homesteader’s handbook to raising small livestock: Installment II—Raising rabbits. Countryside & Small Stock Journal. September–October. p. 77–79.

Brooks, D. et al. 1989. Rabbit Handbook. Leaflet 21020. University of CA Cooperative Extension. 27 p. http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/InOrder/Shop/ItemDetails.asp?ItemNo=21020

McNitt, James, I. 2005. Market report
Accessed 10/12/05 http://www.prma.org/marketreport/marketreport.pdf

McNitt, J.I. 2004. Rabbit information available from Small Farm Family Resource Development Center, Baton Rouge, LA. 9 p.

McNitt, J.I. 1986. Starting a commercial rabbit enterprise. Missouri Farm. January–February. p. 25.

McNitt, J.I. 1989. Enteritis in rabbits. Missouri Farm. March–April. p. 24.

Meek, M.W. 1996. ‘Old-fashioned’ ways to feed rabbits. Countryside & Small Stock Journal. July–August. p. 51–52.

Perry, Janet G., Scott M Barao and Tom W. Smith. 2001. Rabbits can be raised on small acreage. American Small Farm. April. P. 34, 36-37.

Shirley, Christopher. 1995. Retail rabbits. The New Farm. p. 12–15.
Posted: February 6, 2006

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/02/27/p1869

Will feeding flax to my laying hens increase omega-3 in their eggs?

L.R.
Minnesota

Answer: Flaxseed is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. Flax (Linum usitatissum) is usually grown in the upper Midwest for the oil extracted from the seed. The oil is referred to as linseed oil and is used in paint manufacture and other uses. The remaining product is referred to as linseed meal. Linseed meal is also a valuable livestock feed. It is used as a protein supplement, since the protein content of linseed is around 35 percent.

The article “Flax Has Potential in Livestock, Poultry and Pet Diets” discusses feeding whole or ground flaxseed at 15 percent of the ration to layers in order to increase the level of omega-3 fatty acids in the egg from 1 percent to more than 5 percent. There are several commercial companies that produce omega-3 fatty-acid-enriched eggs, several of which are discussed in the articles listed below. Several sample diets are shown in the resource materials.

The resources below also include an “Assessment of Market Opportunities for Omega 3 Eggs,” with research funded by the Agriculture Utilization Research Institute in Minnesota.

Resources:

Anon. No date. Omega-3 Fatty Acids.
http://www.eggs.ca/nutrition/faqs/acids.asp

Canadian Egg Marketing Agency. No date. Omega-3 enriched eggs. 2 p. www.eggs.ca/pdf/omega-3_e.pdf

Flax Council. No date. Flaxseed in egg production. 3 p. www.flaxcouncil.ca/flaxnut17.htm

Hetland, Cara. 2003. Healthier eggs a new niche for farmers. Minnesota Public Radio. May 21. http://news.mpr.org/features/2003/04/30_hetlandc_omegaeggs/

Hickling, Dave. 1997. Flax has potential in livestock, poultry and pet diets. Feedstuffs. January 20. p. 16-17.

Manitoba Agriculture and Food. 2001. Increasing Omega-3 fatty acids in eggs from small chicken flocks. May. www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/livestock/poultry/fatty.html

Pickering, Jennifer. 2003. Assessment of market opportunities for Omega 3 eggs. Southwest State University. January 9. 12 p. www.auri.org/research/omega3/pdfs/omegareport.pdf

Simmons, Tom. 1998. NUI seeks patent on system to produce Omega eggs. 4 p.
www.unl.edu/scarlet/v8n4/v8n4features.html

University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 2001. Omega eggs a healthier alternative. Earth Times. April. 2 p.
www.sdearthtimes.com/et0401/et0401s18.html
Posted: February 27, 2006

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/04/03/p2046

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What is used to treat mastitis in organic production?

J.M.
California

Answer: Transitioning from conventional to organic production brings about many challenges. Organic health care is a hurdle that forces many producers to learn to adapt. Organic Valley cooperative provides its member producers with a packet of information that discusses many organic health care techniques and how they are used, including mastitis treatments.

There is also a short explanation of mastitis care and prevention in the Hoegger Supply Company’s catalog. Another article, “Treating Mastitis without Antibiotics,” has some useful information about prevention and alternative treatments of mastitis. You can also ask current organic producers and organic certifiers what they recommend for organic treatments.

Resources:

Mother Nature’s Natural Animal Health Tools An Introduction for Organic Producers (PDF). Organic Valley.

Mastitis. Hoegger Supply Company Catalog. p. 74

Duval, J. 1995. Treating Mastitis Without Antibiotics.
Posted: April 3, 2006

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/06/12/p2391

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How do you suggest controlling aphids in organic broccoli?

R.T.
California

Answer: The new ATTRA publication Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production contains a section on Organic Integrated Pest Management that may be helpful to you, since it addresses aphids. Here are some additional considerations:

Cultural Control

Encourage natural enemies by diversifying the habitat and their food sources, and refraining from use of broad-spectrum pesticides. The primary parasite of cabbage aphids in the Northeast is a very small, black wasp, Diaeretiella rapae, which lays its eggs inside the aphid. The parasite larva feeds inside the aphid, turning it a bronze color and killing it. It may take 2-3 weeks from the time the parasite lays its eggs inside the aphid until an adult parasite emerges from the dead aphid. Generally, there is a lag period between the outbreak of aphids and control by the parasite, so some other control should be used, but one that does not harm the parasite. A diversified cropping system with several potential aphid hosts can allow D. rapae to maintain itself in an area during periods of low levels of aphid abundance on one crop. Many other insects, such as ladybird beetles and Aphidoletes aphidimyza, can also be effective biological control agents against aphids. (See Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America, from Cornell University.)

Materials Approved for Organic Production

1. Soap: Scout brassica plantings once or twice a week, especially in the fall, and apply insecticidal soap sprays if aphids are found. Do not wait until aphids reach high numbers and dense colonies; apply when numbers are low. Repeat applications two or three times and ensure coverage of the parts of the plant where aphids live, including undersides of leaves and in the buds, shoots or heads of Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, etc. In recent studies, soaps have been ineffective against green peach aphid. Other studies we examined indicated 5 good, 1 fair, and 2 poor results against other aphid species.

2. Rotenone is recommended in the older literature (currently, no rotenone products are on the OMRI approved list).

3. Neem products can provide some control. Based on a limited number of studies, neem products gave good control of turnip aphid (2 studies); fair (4) to poor (3) control of green peach aphid; and mostly good control of other aphids (2 good, 2 fair, 1 poor). There are several different types of neem products.

4. Summer oils (2 fair and 3 poor results) will provide some control.

5. Kaolin clay will reduce aphid populations but will leave a white residue that may affect marketability.
Posted: June 12, 2006

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/07/10/p2522

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What are some alternative CSA crops to grow during a hot Texas summer?

C.G.
Texas

Answer: You are looking for crops that can be grown when temperatures can be in the upper 90s to 110–116 degrees F. during the day. You mentioned that you are trying chard, NZ spinach, pricklypear cactus (for pads), okra, yellow squash, and high-heat-setting tomato this summer and are looking for heat tolerant varieties of traditional American vegetables, as well as new vegetables from other hot climates for your CSA.

The ATTRA publication on Specialty Vegetables may be of interest to you. Also, more information about any of the crops mentioned below is available from ATTRA.

A Web search of the Texas A&M Extension site turned up a great deal of useful information. The Extension site offers lists of recommended vegetables for your region and planting dates. (Many are either spring or fall crops; this is a way of working around the extreme heat of the summer.) The site also provides a helpful list of specialty crops for Texas. It seems to me that you should definitely consider pigeon peas, tomatillos, and jicama. Ground cherries (Physallis spp.) are relatives of tomatillo used in cooking jams and pies. Yard-long (Chinese) beans (a relative of cowpea) have done well for me in Arkansas during extremely hot summers, as has edible luffa (Chinese okra). Both should be trellised. Jerusalem artichoke (a relative of sunflower) is extremely tough and, once established, goes right through hot summers. Don’t overlook melons and cantaloupes, which withstand heat very well if water is available for the roots. There are edible tropical gourds, as well, that withstand high temperatures. I’ve successfully raised Asian “bitter melon” during hot summers with little irrigation. (Bitter melon is definitely an acquired taste.) Malabar spinach is another possibility—especially for barrel culture. (Sweetpotato can also be raised in barrels. See the ATTRA publication Sweetpotato:Organic Production.)

Have you considered eggplant? Many types are grown in Asia and Africa; it can be raised in containers.

Vegetable amaranth is a heat-tolerant cooking green, known in the Caribbean as callaloo. (However, the type most commonly grown there —A. giganticus—is banned from entry into the U.S. because of its invasive nature. ‘Tri-color’ is the variety most commonly found in the U.S. Try Johnny’s Seed Company.) For more suggestions, see the on-line catalog of hot-weather vegetables of the Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization (ECHO) (www.echonet.org). I ordered two types of perennial okra from ECHO this year (Polynesian and African) and am eagerly waiting for results.

Another organization offering seeds and a wealth of information for growing food crops under extreme conditions of drought, heat, and alkaline soils is Native Seeds/SEARCH (Tucson, AZ), with 2000 accessions. See www.nativeseeds.org. Native Seeds/SEARCH offers a guide to desert gardening in the American Southwest. An in-depth study of native foods of the Southwest was published in 1990 by the University of California’s Walter Ebeling, Handbook of Foods and Fibers of Arid America (900 + pages). It can be borrowed through InterLibrary Loan. Inquire at your nearest public or university library.

Peanuts are recommended by A&M, and you might try a variety of tropical root crops. I am wondering whether you have considered Mexican type peppers, as well as sweet peppers. I raise them as perennial plants in 1-5 gal. pots for ease in moving them in during the winter and to conserve water. Although peppers appreciate some shade, mature plants can certainly withstand high temperatures and go right on setting fruit. Pasillas have done well for me, as have Caribbean types (habaneros/Congo pepper, Jamaican, etc.). In the presence of sufficient fertility and occasional watering, a single wintered-over, mature plant can produce 25 or 30 pasilla peppers during the season (fewer for other types). I have to assume that you are not in a frost-free area, so I’m inclined to recommend container culture (which can be half-barrels on rolling carts). Peppers start blooming and setting fruit in March, if wintered over. See the article listed below on uncommon species of chile pepper.

You may also want to consider herbs—such as chia, epazote, and Mexican mint marigold—as additions to your CSA basket.

Some of the crops recommended in Florida Extension’s Manual of Minor Vegetables might be adapted to your area. Also see the Web site http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu.

For seed sources, check the ATTRA database of Suppliers of Seed for Certified Organic Production and heirloom varieties.

Advanced culture:

A hoophouse modified for warm season production—open-sided for air circulation and fitted with a shade cloth—would be helpful in providing shade for some types of vegetables during extreme heat. See the ATTRA publication Season Extension Techniques for Market Gardeners for more information on hoophouses.

You might also consider water vegetables grown in hot parts of Asia—such as lotus, water chestnuts, a sweet potato relative known as “water spinach,” etc. Two years ago I visited a demonstration garden for water vegetables on the outskirts of Fayetteville. It takes a lot of equipment.

You did not mention water availability, nor how much specialized equipment you envision for producing crops. As Virginia Extension’s Andy Hankins has said, “You can raise anything anywhere—if you put enough money into it.” Some commercial operations in Mexico and Israel now use state-of-the art air-conditioned greenhouses for export crops.

Resources:

Harris, Scott. 2000. Native fruits of central Texas and the Hill Country. The Fruit Gardener. September–October. p. 12–13, 22.

Holthe, Peter A. 1995. The uncommon cultivated species of chile peppers. The Fruit Gardener [California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.]. January–February. p. 16–17.

Longbrake, Thomas D., Marvin L. Baker, Sam Comer, Jerry Parsons, Roland Roberts, and Larry Stein. 2006. Specialty Vegetables in Texas. 2 p.
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/extension/specialty/index.html

Stephens, James M. 1988. Manual of Minor Vegetables. University of Florida Coop. Ext., Gainesville. p. v–viii.

Texas A&M Extension. 2006. Gardening Regions for Texas.
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/plantanswers/fallgarden/zones.html

Texas A&M Extension. 2006. Spring Planting Guide for Vegetable Crops.
http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/plantanswers/fallgarden/zones.html

Further resources:

Burr, Fearing, Jr. 1988. The Field and Garden Vegetables of America. Reprinted from 2nd edition, 1865, Boston. American Botanist, Booksellers, Chillicothe, IL.

DeWitt, Dave, and Paul W. Bosland. 1993. The Pepper Garden. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. 240 p.
DeWitt, the editor of Chile Pepper Magazine, has since published a series of cookbooks featuring hot peppers, including Hot and Spicy Caribbean, Hot and Spicy Latin American, Hot and Spicy African, and Callaloo, Callipso, and Carnival (cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago).
Posted: July 10, 2006

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http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2006/07/18/p2564

What do I need to know about seeding turnips into corn as a forage crop?

S.F.
Iowa

Answer:
Forage brassicas can be successfully intercropped with corn to produce a late season grazing without decreasing corn yields. Rapes and turnips are short season crops yielding from 7000 to 8000 pounds per acre. Kale is a later maturing crop that can produce as much as 12,000 pounds per acre. Regional differences determine which crops and varieties do well. Consult your local cooperative Extension agent to obtain information on crops and varieties that do well in your area.

Brassicas are very digestible for livestock. In the vegetative stage brassicas can have dry matter digestibility compositions of greater than 85%. Crude protein is high as well, where tops are often greater than 17% crude protein and roots greater than 12% protein. Fine feed for most classes of livestock, especially in the fall when nutrient requirements can be low. Brassicas are generally low in fiber; therefore it is important to watch for problems with rumen acidosis. Provide hay or other forage when grazing pure brassicas, and restrict brassicas to no more than 2/3 of diet to prevent digestive problems.

Brassicas can be seeded into corn in two ways, an early season and a late season planting. No-till works best if you can get in early enough, but if broadcasting be sure to increase the seeding rate at least ½. For early season planting, sow brassicas at 2-4 pounds per acre at last cultivation (V7 to V9). This typically occurs at around 3 to 5 weeks after emergence. Later plantings are successful if broadcasted into corn at blister stage, or no later than two weeks after silking. Broadcast planting rates should be increased to 3 to 6 pounds per acre at the very least.

Turnips and rutabagas will be ready to graze 70 to 90 days after seeding and will hold up well into the winter if good grazing management is employed. Kale will be ready to graze from 120 to 150 day from seeding. Strip grazing is best, as this gives daily control of defoliation and helps to control intake as well. Turnips can be grazed to the ground without damaging regrowth, but other brassicas should be grazed no lower than about 6 inches to maintain the stand late into the season.

References:

Bartholomew, H.M. and J.F. Underwood. No date. Brassicas for Forage
AGF-020-92. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Extension, Department of Horticulture and Crop Science.

Diver, S., G. Kuepper, and P. Sullivan. 2001. Organic Sweet Corn Production. Fayetteville, AR: ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.
Posted: July 18, 2006

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Where can I find information on growing beneficial insects?

J.C.
New Mexico

Answer: The ATTRA publication Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control has information about how to create on-farm habitat to attract and conserve beneficial organisms.

Raising beneficial insects on-farm for commercial sale is a more complex operation compared to simply creating habitat for beneficials to conserve on-farm populations, and will depend on the type of insects you wish to raise. Parasites can be difficult to raise because you must also rear adequate populations of a host insect as well, and perhaps even host plants. Even predator insects require either adequate populations of prey, or a synthetic diet that will allow growth and development while not altering predation behavior. Other important issues involved in commercial production of beneficial insects are quality control, and ensuring that your customers receive live insects (or eggs or pupae) in good condition.

Federal or State-run labs will likely be willing to supply you with information about the basics of rearing beneficial insects. You may wish to contact the Phillip Alampi Beneficial Insect Rearing laboratory in New Jersey for information:

Robert Chianese, Chief
Bureau of Biological Control,
New Jersey Department of Agriculture
Division of Plant Industry
PO Box 330
Trenton, NJ 08625-0330
609-530-4192
robert.chianese@ag.state.nj.us

Another source of information is commercial insectaries, although they may be less willing to share information. A well known insectary in California is:

RINCON-VITOVA INSECTARIES, INC.
PO Box 1555, Ventura, CA 93002-1555
108 Orchard Dr , Ventura, CA 93001
805 643-5407
Toll-free: 800-248-2847
Fax 805 643-6267
e-mail bugnet@rinconvitova.com
Ron Whitehurst, Pest Control Advisor ron@rinconvitova.com
Kyra Ankenbruck, Entomology Intern tech@rinconvitova.com
Customer Service orderdesk@rinconvitova.com
Order Follow-Up delivery@rinconvitova.com

Also, I would recommend you access the on-line publication, Suppliers of Beneficial Insects of North America. Although a bit dated, this publication of the California Department of Pesticide Regulation has contact information of most of the suppliers of beneficials insects in North America, as well as what types of insects are being raised.

Suppliers of Beneficial Insects of North America
www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/ben_supp/ben_sup2.htm

Pages in this on-line publication include:
Aphid Parasites and Predators
www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/ben_supp/aphidp&p.htm

Whitefly Parasites and Predators
www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/ipminov/ben_supp/whtflp&p.htm

Other on-line pages within this publication include listings of General Predators, Filth Fly Parasites, Moth and Butterfly Larval Parasites, Insect Egg Parasites, Scale and Mealybug Parasites and Predators, Parasites and Predators for Greenhouse Pests and others.

Another webpage with several different listings of suppliers of beneficial insects may be found at: http://pollinator.com/beneficial_vendors.htm

Although I can not vouch for its content, you may wish to order a pamphlet, Beneficial Insects—How to Mass-Rear and Make a Profit from Mayfield Press, or talk to the author, Bob Saffell, at 1-859-745-5218 for information about raising beneficial insects.
Posted: September 18, 2006

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What alternatives are there to plastic mulch for vegetables?

S.F.
Pennsylvania

Answer: Plastic mulch is used in vegetable production for a number of reasons, including soil warming, reduced evaporation, increased yield and earliness, reduced nutrient leaching, and improved nutrient uptake. Of course, there are downsides to the using plastic as mulch, too. These include cost of the material and greater labor and equipment expense to apply and remove the mulch, as well as disposal fees that can be significant.

The first consideration on alternatives is what the primary objective is for using the black plastic mulch. Is it weed control? Increased soil temperature? Moisture control? Most growers in the Northeast use plastic mulch to increase soil temperature and weed control is a secondary bonus. A study, listed in the Resources below, was conducted by Washington State University on Alternatives to Plastic Mulch. In their trials, the Envirocare films, which are a thermal/ photo degradable plastic comosed of polyethelene + TDPA) were comparable to black plastic in durability, crop yield, soil temperature and affordability. While the Envirocare films are similar to black plastic, they degrade much faster with sunlight and air. This is not a product that you would want to just leave in the field; however, you could put it on a corner of your farm and with time it will degrade.

Kraft Brown paper and another thick paper mulch from New Zealand called EcoMulch have shown effectiveness in preventing weeds, but do not warm the soil surface as much as a plastic or other poly-based mulches.

Consistently in field trials black plastic produces better and earlier yields than the alternative mulch counterparts. That is why it is used regularly by organic and non-organic growers. It is a decision that you, as a grower, need to make whether yield reductions can be justified based upon labor and disposal savings with a biodegradable mulch.

The two studies in Resources below list the specific mulch type alternatives and the results of their field trials. Also, the ATTRA publication Season Extension Techniques for Market Gardeners may give you some alternative production techniques that can alleviate the need for plastic mulch, such as hoop house, or high tunnel, production.

Resources:
Miles, Carol. Alternatives to Plastic Mulch for Organic Vegetable Production. CSANR Organic Cropping Research for the Northwest. Research Progress Report.
Downloaded Sept. 2006.
http://organic.tfrec.wsu.edu/OrganicCropResearch/ProgressReports04/
MilesProgressReport04Mulch.pdf

Rangarajan, Anu, Betsy Ingall and Mike Davis. Alternative Mulch Products 2003. Cornell University horticulture Department. 2003.
www.hort.cornell.edu/extension/commercial/vegetables/online/2003veg/PDF/
PMulch2003Final.pdf

Peaceful Valley Farm Supply
P.O. Box 2209
125 Clydesdale Court
Grass Valley, CA 95945
(530) 272-4769
Order Toll Free (888) 784-1722
They have a lot of alternative paper and poly mulch products.
Posted: September 25, 2006

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Where can I find information on obtaining and saving non-GMO heirloom vegetable seeds?

J.H.
South Carolina

Answer:
A good place to learn more about heirloom seed production is the ATTRA publication Seed Production and Variety Development for Organic Systems.

ATTRA also offers an online database of seed sources for organic growers that includes a section on untreated, non-GMO, and open-pollinated seed. Visit the Organic Seed Suppliers Search.

Although there are no GMO vegetable seeds on the market at this time, trial plots are situated in some locations. Both GMO tomatoes and GMO potatoes have been developed for commercial producers, but not marketed. Transgenic research has focused on four U.S. crops—soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola. Derivatives from these major crops are found in many processed foods.

A good resource for seed saving is the latest edition of Seed to Seed, by Suzanne Ashworth. It can be ordered through the Web site of Seed Saver Publications, www.seedsavers.org. Vegetables such as beans, peas, and tomatoes—which are self-pollinated—are very good choices for the beginning seed saver, as their seed almost always remains true to type.

The Seed Savers Exchange publishes annually an extensive listing of heirloom varieties available from members.
Seed Savers Exchange
3094 North Winn Road
Decorah, IA 52101
563-382-5990
www.seedsavers.org/

Another organization for seed savers is the Southern Seed Legacy Project.
Southern Seed Legacy (SSL)
Department of Anthropology
250A Baldwin Hall
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602
ebl@uga.edu
www.uga.edu/ebl/ssl
Posted: October 16, 2006

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Where can I find information on integrating small livestock into a greenhouse?

E.B.
Ohio

Answer: While rabbits and chickens can provide warmth in a greenhouse, it is important to make sure they receive adequate ventilation. The higher humidity and temperature of a greenhouse can be problematic. Some good resources are materials about Anna Edey’s solar greenhouse that incorporates livestock. Edey is able to raise rabbits and chickens in her greenhouse, and she uses an “earth-lung” to filter out the toxic ammonia gas. Also, Rick Meisterheim in Michigan received a SARE grant in the mid-90s to look at integrating poultry into a greenhouse.

Resources:

Edey, Anna. 1998. Solviva. Trailblazer Press, Martha’s Vineyard, MA.

Edey, Anna. 1994. Solviva greenhouse: Something new under the sun. The Growing EDGE. Volume 5, No. 3.

Jannasch, Rupert. 2004. Heater hens and hothouses. The Canadian Organic Grower. Summer. p. 46-47.

Lee, Andy. 1994. Chicken Tractor. Good Earth Publications, Shelburne, VT.

MacDougall, Ellie. 1993. Anna Edey grows with nature at Solviva. Maine Organic Farmer & Gardener. November-December. p. 16-17.

Meisterheim, Rick. 1998. SARE Final Report.

Mollison, Bill. No date. Permaculture: A Designers’ Manual. Tagari Publication, Tyalgum Australia.
Posted: November 27, 2006

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What are some options for marketing medicinal herbs?

A.P.
Iowa

Answer: Medicinal herbs—especially native species—have been extensively investigated over the past 25 years as possible alternative crops for small farmers. Summaries of research are included in our publication Herb Production in Organic Systems. Much of the research, as you will see, has been conducted by small farmers who received Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education grants, funded by USDA for a total of about $2 million dollars.

Unfortunately, reliable mainstream bulk markets for domestic suppliers have never materialized. Most growers have found they must formulate and market their own products, or go into entertainment farming, event hosting, plant sales, or related ventures. The Resource article listed below offers the latest available sales figures for medicinal herb product sales in the U.S. (2005). Table 1 in this article reveals that market demand stopped its double-digit growth about 1999. Keep in mind that much of the supply now comes from outside the U.S. There is considerable fluctuation year-by-year in demand for medicinal herbs that are manufactured into dietary supplements. Combinations of herbs have begun to show more growth than single herbs, according to Table 4 in the article.

Kansas State University has shown considerable interest in developing alternative crops for Midwest growers. KSU’s Center for Sustainable Agriculture and Alternative Crops publishes Links to Buyers and Sellers (Herbs) at www.oznet.ksu.edu/ksherbs/links.htm.

Most buyers and many farms now do business over the Internet. Some growers/ gatherers place classified ads in the “Herb Trade” section of Herbnet.com. I have listed contact information below for several companies that trade in medicinal herbs.

A comprehensive feasibility study of medicinal herbs as a farm crop was done by the Montana Department of Agriculture and USDA a few years ago.(1) It can be viewed online or downloaded.

Reference:

1) Brester, Gary, Kole Swanser, and Tim Watts. 2002. Market Opportunities and Strategic Directions for Specialty Herbs and Essential Oil Crops in Montana. Prepared for Montana Department of Agriculture and USDA Federal-State Marketing Improvement Program. Watts and Associates, Billings, MT. 64p. www.ams.usda.gov/TMD/FSMIP/FY2000/MT294.pdf

Resource:

Blumenthal, Mark, Grant K.L. Ferrier, and Courtney Cavaliere. 2006. Total sales of herbal supplements in United States show steady growth: Sales in mass market channel show continued decline. HerbalGram. No. 71. p. 64–66.

List of Buyers:

American Botanicals
P.O. Box 158
24750 Hwy. FF
Eolia, MO 63344
(573) 485-2300

Appalachian Root & Herb Co.
37 Center Street
Rainelle, WV 25430
(304) 438-5211, 438-5212
Since 1972.

Blessed Herbs Inc.
109 Barre Plains Road
Oakham, MA 01068-9675
(508) 882-3839
(800) 489-4372
(508) 882-3755 FAX
info@blessedherbs.com

Bouncing Bear Botanicals
P.O. Box 1993
Lawrence, KS 66044
www.bouncingbearbotanicals.com

Windy Pines Natural Herb Farm
23295 Marge Lane
Dix, IL 62830
(618) 266-7351
Native medicinals only; must be clean.

Southern Botanicals
9750 W. Sample Road, Ste. B
Coral Springs, FL 33065-4047
(954) 752-5001
www.TheBeeWellCompany.com
Wildcrafted botanicals.

Star West Botanicals
11253 Trade Centre Dr.
Rancho Cordova, CA 95742
(916) 638-8100 (ph./FAX)
Posted: December 4, 2006

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What can you tell me about heirloom watermelon varieties?

C.W.
Arkansas

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information regarding heirloom watermelon varieties. I have listed below a few of the many, many varieties of heirloom varieties of watermelon. Seed Saver’s Exchange sells seed for heirloom varieties. You can order their catalog by calling the number listed at the bottom of the page. Baker Creek also sell a lot of open-pollinated/ heirloom varieties of watermelon. I have listed their number below, under further resources.

Congo
100 days — The rind is tough, medium green with darker stripes, cylindrical in shape with blunt ends. Can reach twelve inches by twenty five inches and up to fifty pounds. Does extremely well in Southeastern U.S. and has a medium red colored flesh with very high sugar content and white seeds.

Moon and Stars: 100 days. Named for the moon and stars speckled skin. A spectacular watermelon, with fine flavor, introduced by the Henderson seed company in 1926. The skin is deep green, speckled with hundreds of golden yellow stars and a few half-dollar sized moons. Even the foliage has yellow “stars”. The fruit is red. Melons are medium sized 25 pounds and slightly oblong

Sugar Baby: 79 days An icebox type of watermelon widely adapted, produces an abundance of small 8 x 8-1/2 inch fruits. Sugar Baby Watermelon rind is tough, thin, and dark green. It has a very sweet, firm, bright red flesh with small dark brown seeds.

Further Resources:

Heirloom seed sources:
Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds
They have over 50 varieties of heirloom watermelons and many other heirloom/ open pollinated seed. Call to order a calatog.
Phone: (417) 924-8917, or by fax at (417) 924-8887.
Mailing address:
2278 Baker Creek Road
Mansfield, MO 65704

Seed Savers Exchange
3094 North Winn Rd.
Decorah, IA 52101
563-382-5990

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What information can you give me on energy efficient options for my dairy farm?

C.L.
Vermont

Answer:. I am pleased to provide you with information on dairy energy efficiency, including housing, feed storage, and small scale methane capture.

Dairy Housing

Modernization of the following systems provides the most cost-effective means of reducing energy use on the farm, including the dairy barn itself;
• water heating and space heating systems,
• lighting,
• ventilation fan motors,
• milking equipment (pre-coolers, energy efficient compressors, variable speed pumps),
• electrical component cleanliness (clean contacts waste energy and pose a fire hazard),
• solar fencing,
• solar or wind generated water pumps, and
• timers on heating components (OMAFRA).

After addressing these areas of concern, you can begin to ascertain other areas that need treatment, such as manure handling.

Compost Bedding Dairy Barns are an integrated approach solving many farm problems, including the problem of manure handling. This design also utilizes the heat of aerobic fermentation to heat the barn space. Compost is spread on fields seasonally, and nutrient loss is much less than with spreading raw manure. However, the compost bedding process requires aeration twice a day and ventilation to remove moisture. Maintaining a compost bedding space requires constant attention, and sufficient equipment to aerate the pack twice daily. Compost bedding barns reduce the need to purchase and ship bedding materials such as wood shavings, which represents not only a cost savings but an energy savings as well. Endres and Janni (2008) suggest the following practices to ensure a successfully composted bedding pack:

Keys to Success with Compost Dairy Barns

• Provide at least 80 to 85 sq. feet per cow for Holsteins and similar-sized breeds and 65 sq. feet for Jerseys. Some producers provide 100 sq. feet per cow.
• Use fine, dry wood shavings or sawdust for bedding. Alternative bedding materials are being investigated.
• Aerate the pack twice daily 10 inches deep or deeper to keep it aerobic and fluffy. Biological activity helps dry the pack.
• Add bedding when it begins to stick to the cows (Have bedding supply available so you don’t end up adding fresh bedding too late).
• Enhance biological activity to generate heat to drive off moisture, and ventilate the barn well to remove the moisture.
• Use excellent cow prep at milking time.

Whether a compost bedding barn or a conventional barn with timely manure removal is more efficient depends on your own particular circumstances, such as frequency of removal, available land for disposal, pasture nutrient load (namely phosphorus), and personal preference. In addition to considering the energy and monetary cost of inputs such as bedding and time, consider the amount of tractor time needed to remove manure vs. aerating compost bedding twice daily.

To assist you in determining energy efficient practices, you can access the on-line NRCS Energy Estimator for Animal Housing at http://ahat.sc.egov.usda.gov/. This interactive tool will allow you to input your farm data and energy costs. The tool with then recommend practices to conserve energy and estimate savings based on your location.

Winter Forage Storage Options

There are many factors that go into determining which forage storage system has the least carbon footprint. Energy is used in forage production and storage to

• prepare the field,
• fertilize,
• plant,
• cut,
• rake,
• bale or ensile,
• transport,
• store,
• and feed the forage.

Ineffiencies in any of these tasks can increase the carbon footprint of the evolution.

Factors that influence energy use in harvested and stored forage systems
• Harvest management – produce high quality forage by harvesting at proper stage of maturity. Efficient harvest management can ensure that the highest amount of solar capture through photosynthesis actually makes it to the feed bunk.
• Minimize storage losses – nutrients in stored hay can be preserved with proper storage, reducing the energy costs associated with supplemental feeding
• Scale-appropriate forage handling system – choose the type of system (hay bales, silage, and baleage) appropriate for your farm scale

Corn silage systems have a higher potential than hay systems to maximize energy use on a per unit basis, because the energy captured in silage is denser than in hay, although more overall energy may be used in producing silage. Grass or alfalfa silage would require less energy inputs than corn silage, due to the perennial nature of these crops. Grass or alfalfa silage does not require annual tillage, planting, or fertilization. However, the ratio of energy output per unit input is slightly lower than corn silage. High quality grass or alfalfa silage can be an excellent source of energy for lactating dairy cattle if properly produced and fed.

Round Hay Bale Storage Options
• Shed storage – longest life, least amount of dry matter loss
• Tarp on bales stacked outside – short life, low dry matter loss
• Plastic wrap with bales stacked outside – shortest life, low dry matter loss
• Stacked bales outside on rock pad – long life, intermediate dry matter loss
• Stacked bales outside – least cost, most dry matter loss

Long-cut Grass Silage – a low input method of making high quality feed

Unwilted, long-cut grass has been successfully ensiled in piles and covered with white plastic. According to Allan Nation (2005), the grass is cut and blown with equipment such as an Alpha-Ag Lacerator and blown into a wagon, then stacked on the ground and covered with plastic. The plastic is weighted along the sides with rock or soil, and the air is then vacuumed from the plastic enclosure. Silage made this way can produce high quality feed and will not spoil during feeding as long as it is fed out every day.

The New England Small Farm Institute and UC Extension has also done some research with this system and has resulted in successful deployment of this technology by many farmers in New England (Markesich, 2002). Please see these resources (listed below) for more information on making long-cut grass silage.

Methane Digesters for Small Dairies

Methane digesters can are less feasible for dairies with herds under 100 cows. The capitol investment required limits this technology to herds approaching at least 300 cows in size, although some resources suggest herds as low as 100 cows may be feasible (Barker, 2001). I have annotated several on-line resources below, including a paper from Jones, et al (1980) that includes a worksheet for determining the feasibility of methane digestion. You can download the form and enter you data to ascertain the feasibility of a methane digester for your operation.

I have also referenced a publication by Gary Baron on a small-scale digester that was constructed in the Philippines. The paper includes design details and instructions, including a link to a design chart. This small design might be feasible for small dairies and could produce enough gas to power barn lighting, domestic hot water, or cooking.

Seasonal Dairying

Dairying in the U.S. has traditionally produced milk on a year-round basis with a feeding system of silage, hay, and grain. However, seasonal dairying is becoming more popular. It was first practiced in New Zealand where little grain is grown and government subsidies disappeared years ago. Seasonal systems match the reproductive cycle of the cows to availability of forage. The highest nutrient requirements of the cow—during calving and lactation—are timed to occur in the season of highest forage quality and quantity, usually spring and summer.

In seasonal dairying, since all the cows dry off at once, it is not necessary to milk for a couple of months during the year. The idea is to avoid the period of highest cost milk production. In very hot, humid climates, summer might be the time to dry off the cows. In northern latitudes, this will likely be the winter months. Seasonal dairying can be a tool to increase dairy energy efficiency by maintaining dry cows during the peak energy-use months of the year.

Keys to Success for Transitioning to Seasonal Production
• Estrus synchronization
• Heat detection
• Get cows bred within narrow window of time (approx 6 weeks)
• Maintain cows on high plane of nutrition from growing pasture and high quality stored forages
• Adequate facilities for calving, calf raising, and breeding in one season
• Culling of late breeders

References and Resources:

Balsam, John. 2006. Anaerobic Digestion of Animal Wastes: Factors to Consider. Updated by Dave Ryan. Butte, MT: NCAT-ATTRA.

Barker, James C. 2001. Methane Fuel Gas from Livestock Wastes: A Summary. Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.

Baron, Gary. A Small-Scale Biodigester Designed and Built in the Philippines.

Composting Bedded Pack Barns for Dairy Housing. University of Minnesota Extension.

Endres, Marcia I and Kevin A. Janni. 2008. Compost Bedded Pack Barns for Dairy Cows. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.

Ensave, Inc.
65 Millet Street, Suite 105
Richmond, VT 05477
(800) 732-1399
http://www.ensave.com/
EnSave, Inc. is an agricultural energy efficiency consulting firm. Since 1991, EnSave has supported the American agricultural sector with innovative energy efficiency and resource conservation solutions. EnSave provides agricultural producers and food processors with cost-effective ways to reduce operating costs while saving energy and conserving our nation’s natural resources by designing and implementing energy efficiency programs. EnSave also provides energy audits directly to producers. EnSave’s clients include state and federal energy and environmental agencies, investor-owned utilities, and rural electric cooperatives. EnSave implements its programs by developing relationships with equipment manufacturers, local equipment dealers and the local agricultural community. Ultimately, these programs promote economic investment in the rural economy and improve the quality of America’s land, air, and water.

Jones, Don D., John C. Nye, and Alvin C. Dale. 1980. Methane Generation From Livestock Waste. Department of Agricultural Engineering, Purdue University.
Includes a worksheet for determining the feasibility of methane digestion.

Markesich, Kim Colavito. 2002. Farmer research groups tackle real world issues, in Journal, vol.9 no 2. University of Connecticut College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.

Nation, Allan. 2005. Tips on how to make direct-cut vacuum silage. The Stockman Grassfarmer, November issue.

NRCS Energy Estimator: Animal Housing. http://ahat.sc.egov.usda.gov/

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs (OMAFRA). Options to Reduce Energy use on the Farm.

University of Wisconsin Extension Forage Resources. Silage Harvesting & Equipment.
Posted: August 11, 2008

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What information can you give me on organic greenhouse strawberry starts?

K.W.
California

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information
regarding organic greenhouse strawberry starts.

Many strawberry growers rely on starts that are certified disease free,
as strawberries tend to be a disease and pest magnet. However, as you
indicated you might be able to serve a niche to organic strawberry
growers in your region.

There was a study funded by the Southern Region Sustainable Agriculture
Research and Education (SSARE) grant on the topic on producing organic
strawberry plugs. The link below is to the full report for this study,
in which the authors discuss methodology, fertilizer and potting mixes.
This should be a helpful guide for you to determine the types of
materials and methodology you will need to get started.
Title: Developing a system to produce organic plug transplants for organic strawberry production
http://www.hos.ufl.edu/ProtectedAg/SARE%20Final%20Report.pdf

A farmer in Virginia has developed a system without greenhouses that is
inexpensive. There is a report about the grower’s costs, materials and
methods from the Vegetable Growers News available online: VIRGINIA GROWER DEVELOPS LOWER COST STRAWBERRY PLUG PRODUCTION SYSTEM Vegetable Growers News November-December 2000, Vol. 7, No. 6
By: Charlie O’Dell, Extension Horticulturist; Virginia Tech
http://www.ext.vt.edu/news/periodicals/commhort/2000-12/2000-12-04.html

In both of these cases the growers bought certified disease free runners
from a service in Canada that starts the runners. If you are interested
in producing organic runners, this will require significantly more
start-up and productions costs.

A study in New Zealand looking for a commercially viable production
system for organic strawberry runners is discussed in a Horticulture
Society research paper. The researchers recommended the enhanced curtain
system as the most suitable for organic production systems based on
disease and pest problems, sanitation, and number of runners produced.
They described the curtain system, as “mother plants” that are grown on
benches, and runners are allowed to fall down off the benches. Runners
are harvested and propagated under mist to produce plug plants. The
enhanced curtain was similar, but the first two runners are potted into
growth substrate using PB3/4 bags and placed onto the bench next to the
mother plant.

In the study they make the following recommendations, for quality indoor
runner production under organic conditions:
• High level of sanitation such as UV resistant net curtaining (or
similar product) for insect proofing; white hydroponic plastic (or
similar product) for covering of the soil and keeping the tunnel house
clean.
• For the enhanced curtain system, PB5 bags or similar sized growing
containers for strawberry mother-plants with PB3/4 bags for potting the
first runners – alternatively a larger trough can be used for holding
both mother and first runner plants.
• Single shelving (from inert material for ease of cleaning) at 1-1.5 m
height for adopting a curtain system.
• Collection and re-cycling of drainage-water and/or adjusted irrigation
management, which reduces the risk of leaching.
• Hot compost (± vermicast) as the basic growth substrate, with the
option of adding a pro-biotic (such as Bokashi) for improved plant
nutrition.
• Constant pest and disease monitoring of runner plants is important to
maintain high quality standards.

References:
Ed. G. Waite. 2006. Development of a Commercially Viable System for
Organic Strawberry Runner Production. Proc. Vth Int. Strawberry
Symposium. Acta Hort. International Society for Horticulture Science.

Charlie O’Dell. 2000. Virginia
Grower Develops Lower Cost Strawberry Plug Production System.
Vegetable Growers News. November-December 2000, Vol. 7, No. 6

Cantliffe, D. et al. 2004. Developing a system to produce organic plug
transplants for organic strawberry production. Sustainable Agriculture
Research and Education Project #GS02-013.
Posted: December 23, 2008

[nw_arizona_granny]

http://attra.ncat.org/calendar/question.php/2009/02/09/p7170

Can you give me information on gravity-fed drip irrigation systems?

J.T.
Louisiana

Answer: I am pleased to provide you with information regarding designing a gravity fed drip irrigation system.

Pressure:
For every 1’ (12 cm) of elevation above the system you will gain .433 PSI (.030 bar). This means that if your water source is 10 above the system you will have 4.33 PSI (.30 bar) at the start of the system. (.433 x 10 = 4.33). Mind you, this is significantly lower than most drip irrigation guides will recommend. You can compensate this by creating a slope from the beginning to the end of your field, as 10’ is quite high for you to place your barrels. Another consideration is the platform in which the barrels will reside. This will be withstanding a lot of weight, so it must be very sturdy. The 100’ distance is a significant amount of distance to travel with low pressure and little to no slope. Reducing the bed length would help alleviate the worry of your irrigation water not reaching, and thus reducing yields, towards the end of the bed.

Flow rate:
Water flow rate is typically specified in gallons per minute per 100 feet of tape (gpm/100 ft) or by the emission rate of a single emitter in gallons per hour (gph). Tape flow rates typically range from 0.2 to 1.0 gpm/100 ft. For vegetable production, tapes with flow rates around 0.5 gpm are often used. Maturing vegetables grown in the northeastern United States require about 2 to 3 hours of irrigation per day during hot summer days when a 0.5 gpm/100 ft tape is used. Most drip tapes emit water at about 25 gallons per 100 feet per hour when operated at l0 psi pressure, so you can cut that in half for your gravity fed system to 12 gallons/ 100 ft. per hour given the pressure that I mentioned above.

For how long should you water?:
The NCAT Guide to Efficient Irrigation has a handy calculation to determine this correct set time=net water application (inches) x irrigated area (sq. ft.) / flow rate (gpm) x 96.3 (this is a conversion factor) x system efficiency. Using this calculation, I have come up with the following set time for one 100’ bed on your farm:
Time(hours) = 1” x 300 sq. ft / .5 gpm x 96.3 x 85%= 7 hours. Given this calculation, each 100’ bed will require approximately 84 gallons/ week if you do not have any rain to supplement your irrigation. For more information on accounting for rain in your system, please see the ATTRA publication Soil Moisture Monitoring.

Drip Tape size:
Diameter of the drip tape is important to consider in system design and is chosen based on row length. Row length directly affects both the flow rate through the tape and pressure loss in the tape. The decrease in tape diameter causes an increase in pressure in the drip system. For 100’ length bed 5/8” diameter is often used.

Since you will have very little pressure, you will want to limit the number of beds that you irrigate at one time. This can be done by installing a ball valve at each bed. The number of beds that you can feasibly water will take your experimentation. It may only be 1-2 beds. This will be apparent if the water is not appearing at the end of the drip line.

Resources:
The Pennsylvania Ag Alternatives Center has developed a good overview of establishing a drip system This will at least give you an idea of the components that you will need to purchase and the relative cost of them. I have listed the PDF link to this publication at the following link:
http://agalternatives.aers.psu.edu/Publications/DripIrrigation.pdf

The Dripworks company has consultants that can help you design a system. They have a good introduction and tutorial to many of the concepts I outline in this letter at the following link.
http://www.dripworksusa.com/tutorial.php
Posted: February 9, 2009