How a Syrian Desert Fort Rewrote Roman History [10:27]

--> YouTube-Generated Transcript <--
· Introduction
0:10 · Dura-Europos was not an important city. It was located far from the great trade
0:16 · routes and cultural centers of the Roman east. Its population never exceeded 5,000.
0:22 · But today's video will explore how this insignificant settlement in
0:26 · the Syrian desert transformed our understanding of the Roman world.
0:32 · This is a collaboration with my friends at Historia Militum, who will be covering
0:38 · the siege and fall of Dura-Europos. You'll find their video linked in the description.
0:45 · Dura stood on the banks of the Euphrates, in what is now eastern Syria. Founded by the Seleucids in
· History of Dura-Europos
0:52 · the generation after Alexander the Great's conquests, it fell to the Parthians around
0:57 · the end of the second century BC. It remained under Parthian control for more than 250 years.
1:05 · The Romans briefly overran Dura during Trajan's Parthian War, and definitively annexed the city
1:11 · during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Thereafter, Dura was a stronghold on Rome's
1:18 · eastern frontier, with a large garrison housed in a separate military quarter.
1:24 · Despite – or because of – this protection, the city was attacked twice by the armies of
1:29 · Sassanid Persia. The first assault, around 253, seems to have been repelled. In the aftermath,
1:37 · however, Dura's civilian population fled or was evicted, and the Roman garrison occupied the
1:44 · entire settlement. The most vulnerable section of the city wall was reinforced with a massive
1:50 · embankment of sand and rubble, which buried – and so preserved – whole blocks of buildings.
1:58 · The Persians returned around 256. This time, after a hard-fought siege,
2:04 · they captured Dura. The city was pillaged, and its ruins were abandoned to the desert.
· Excavation
2:11 · Dura-Europos was never reoccupied. The site remained virtually untouched until 1920,
2:18 · when British soldiers digging a rifle pit revealed a wall glowing with ancient paintings.
2:24 · This discovery inspired an excavation campaign jointly sponsored by Yale University and the
2:30 · French Academy of Inscriptions and Literature. Between 1928 and 1937,
2:37 · a team that often included upwards of 300 workmen cleared nearly a third of the site. Later,
2:44 · a Franco-Syrian team continued work on a smaller scale, until the dig was ended by the civil war.
2:52 · Most of Dura's buildings were made of mudbrick, and have left only foundations. But throughout
2:58 · the site, and especially beneath the embankment that the Romans built to strengthen the city wall,
3:03 · archaeologists have discovered a dazzling range of artifacts.
· Military artifacts
3:08 · Some of the most interesting were connected with the Roman military.
3:12 · The Twentieth Palmyrene Cohort – a mixed unit of infantry and cavalry – was stationed at Dura,
3:19 · along with detachments from several eastern legions. Military buildings occupied about a
3:25 · quarter of the city. Most followed designs current throughout the empire, from the baths – supplied
3:32 · with Euphrates water by an aqueduct – to an amphitheater with room for a thousand spectators.
3:39 · Some civilian houses were subdivided to serve as barracks. Others were occupied by officers;
3:45 · the so-called House of the Scribes featured a portrait of Heliodorus the Actuarius,
3:51 · an officer responsible for disbursing wages.
3:55 · The arid environment of Dura preserved an impressive array of military equipment,
4:00 · including the only scutum – the curved rectangular shield carried by legionaries – ever found intact.
4:08 · Another remarkable discovery was the oldest extant map of Europe,
4:12 · apparently sketched on a leather shield cover to commemorate a campaign. Archaeologists also
4:19 · found two sets of horse scale armor and three oval shields painted with scenes from the Trojan War.
4:27 · The most significant find connected with the military, however, was the archive of
4:32 · the Twentieth Palmyrene Cohort, housed in a small temple next to the base. Among the
4:38 · more than 200 documents uncovered there was the Feriale Duranum, a unique calendar of the
4:45 · festivals and sacrifices by which Roman soldiers honored the emperors and gods.
4:51 · Along with a roster listing the names and ranks of more than 1,000 soldiers,
4:56 · the archives also contained a number of daily reports, each indicating the day's password,
5:02 · orders, and honor guard for the unit standards.
5:07 · We'll explore the most fascinating finds
5:09 · from Dura-Europos after a brief word about this video's sponsor.
· Portyl
5:15 · [ad text redacted]
· Religion and society
6:13 · Although Dura was founded as a Greek city, and always maintained the institutions of a polis,
6:19 · Greek was only one element in its cultural constitution. Many citizens had both Greek
6:25 · and Semitic names. Inscriptions mention Demetrius, known as Nabusamus; Alexander,
6:32 · who is Ammios; Heliodorus, called Samsbanas. Greek names seem to have often been used in
6:40 · political contexts; non-Greek, in the contexts of religion and commerce.
6:47 · The gods of Dura also had multiple names. Zeus Kyrios was Baalshamin;
6:53 · Artemis was Nanaia, or Azzanathkona. Alongside the Greek pantheon, the gods of Palmyra, Hatra,
7:01 · and a nearby town called Anath were worshipped.
7:05 · The city's nineteen temples blended classical, Mesopotamian, and local architectural traditions.
7:12 · Most had a central courtyard ringed by shrines and rooms used for ritual dining. The principal
7:19 · sanctuary was usually painted with images of the god surrounded by worshippers. An example found
7:25 · in the Temple of Bel showed a Roman officer named Julius Terentius offering sacrifice.
· Synagogue
7:33 · Beneath the embankment that buttressed the city wall, the Yale expedition discovered a
7:38 · third-century synagogue decorated with paintings. Apparently untroubled by the commandment against
7:45 · graven images, the Jews of Dura had frescoed almost every part of their main assembly room.
7:51 · The frescoes depicted the sacred history of the Jewish people.
7:56 · Among the 58 surviving scenes were the discovery of the infant Moses, the parting of the Red Sea,
8:03 · the anointing of David by Samuel, and Esther with Mordechai. Their style closely recalled that of
8:10 · the paintings in Dura's pagan temples; the same artists were likely responsible for both. Greek
8:17 · and Aramaic inscriptions commemorated the work of decoration, and Persian dipinti – apparently
8:23 · left by visitors from Mesopotamia – commented appreciatively on the paintings.
· House church
8:30 · A short distance from the synagogue, in what at first appeared to be a typical house,
8:35 · the archaeologists discovered a Christian church dating to the early third century.
8:41 · On one side was a meeting hall with space for about 100 worshippers;
8:46 · on the other, a baptistery with a large font.
8:50 · The baptistery had been decorated with frescoes. Though less well-preserved than
8:55 · those in the synagogue, some scenes could be identified. They illustrated both the
9:00 · Old and the New Testaments: Adam and Eve, David and Goliath, Christ walking on water,
9:07 · the three Marys visiting the tomb. Like so much else from Dura, these frescoes are unique,
9:14 · shedding a precious and unexpected light on early Christian iconography.
· The fall of Dura
9:20 · The end of Dura-Europos was brought about by an epic clash between the
9:25 · Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia. Follow the link onscreen and in the description
9:30 · to watch Historia Militum's video on the siege and fall of Dura-Europos.
9:37 · In the video description, you'll find links to my Spring 2026 trips: the Roman Ruins of Spain and In
9:45 · the Footsteps of Alexander the Great. You'll also see a link to the Toldinstone Patreon page, and
9:52 · to my other channels, Toldinstone Footnotes and Scenic Routes to the Past. Thanks for watching.

Disclaimer: Opinions posted on Free Republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of Free Republic or its management. All materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works.

--> YouTube-Generated Transcript <--
	·	Introduction
0:10	·	Dura-Europos was not an important city. It was located far from the great trade
0:16	·	routes and cultural centers of the Roman east. Its population never exceeded 5,000.
0:22	·	But today's video will explore how this insignificant settlement in
0:26	·	the Syrian desert transformed our understanding of the Roman world.
0:32	·	This is a collaboration with my friends at Historia Militum, who will be covering
0:38	·	the siege and fall of Dura-Europos. You'll find their video linked in the description.
0:45	·	Dura stood on the banks of the Euphrates, in what is now eastern Syria. Founded by the Seleucids in
	·	History of Dura-Europos
0:52	·	the generation after Alexander the Great's conquests, it fell to the Parthians around
0:57	·	the end of the second century BC. It remained under Parthian control for more than 250 years.
1:05	·	The Romans briefly overran Dura during Trajan's Parthian War, and definitively annexed the city
1:11	·	during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Thereafter, Dura was a stronghold on Rome's
1:18	·	eastern frontier, with a large garrison housed in a separate military quarter.
1:24	·	Despite – or because of – this protection, the city was attacked twice by the armies of
1:29	·	Sassanid Persia. The first assault, around 253, seems to have been repelled. In the aftermath,
1:37	·	however, Dura's civilian population fled or was evicted, and the Roman garrison occupied the
1:44	·	entire settlement. The most vulnerable section of the city wall was reinforced with a massive
1:50	·	embankment of sand and rubble, which buried – and so preserved – whole blocks of buildings.
1:58	·	The Persians returned around 256. This time, after a hard-fought siege,
2:04	·	they captured Dura. The city was pillaged, and its ruins were abandoned to the desert.
	·	Excavation
2:11	·	Dura-Europos was never reoccupied. The site remained virtually untouched until 1920,
2:18	·	when British soldiers digging a rifle pit revealed a wall glowing with ancient paintings.
2:24	·	This discovery inspired an excavation campaign jointly sponsored by Yale University and the
2:30	·	French Academy of Inscriptions and Literature. Between 1928 and 1937,
2:37	·	a team that often included upwards of 300 workmen cleared nearly a third of the site. Later,
2:44	·	a Franco-Syrian team continued work on a smaller scale, until the dig was ended by the civil war.
2:52	·	Most of Dura's buildings were made of mudbrick, and have left only foundations. But throughout
2:58	·	the site, and especially beneath the embankment that the Romans built to strengthen the city wall,
3:03	·	archaeologists have discovered a dazzling range of artifacts.
	·	Military artifacts
3:08	·	Some of the most interesting were connected with the Roman military.
3:12	·	The Twentieth Palmyrene Cohort – a mixed unit of infantry and cavalry – was stationed at Dura,
3:19	·	along with detachments from several eastern legions. Military buildings occupied about a
3:25	·	quarter of the city. Most followed designs current throughout the empire, from the baths – supplied
3:32	·	with Euphrates water by an aqueduct – to an amphitheater with room for a thousand spectators.
3:39	·	Some civilian houses were subdivided to serve as barracks. Others were occupied by officers;
3:45	·	the so-called House of the Scribes featured a portrait of Heliodorus the Actuarius,
3:51	·	an officer responsible for disbursing wages.
3:55	·	The arid environment of Dura preserved an impressive array of military equipment,
4:00	·	including the only scutum – the curved rectangular shield carried by legionaries – ever found intact.
4:08	·	Another remarkable discovery was the oldest extant map of Europe,
4:12	·	apparently sketched on a leather shield cover to commemorate a campaign. Archaeologists also
4:19	·	found two sets of horse scale armor and three oval shields painted with scenes from the Trojan War.
4:27	·	The most significant find connected with the military, however, was the archive of
4:32	·	the Twentieth Palmyrene Cohort, housed in a small temple next to the base. Among the
4:38	·	more than 200 documents uncovered there was the Feriale Duranum, a unique calendar of the
4:45	·	festivals and sacrifices by which Roman soldiers honored the emperors and gods.
4:51	·	Along with a roster listing the names and ranks of more than 1,000 soldiers,
4:56	·	the archives also contained a number of daily reports, each indicating the day's password,
5:02	·	orders, and honor guard for the unit standards.
5:07	·	We'll explore the most fascinating finds
5:09	·	from Dura-Europos after a brief word about this video's sponsor.
	·	Portyl
5:15	·	[ad text redacted]
	·	Religion and society
6:13	·	Although Dura was founded as a Greek city, and always maintained the institutions of a polis,
6:19	·	Greek was only one element in its cultural constitution. Many citizens had both Greek
6:25	·	and Semitic names. Inscriptions mention Demetrius, known as Nabusamus; Alexander,
6:32	·	who is Ammios; Heliodorus, called Samsbanas. Greek names seem to have often been used in
6:40	·	political contexts; non-Greek, in the contexts of religion and commerce.
6:47	·	The gods of Dura also had multiple names. Zeus Kyrios was Baalshamin;
6:53	·	Artemis was Nanaia, or Azzanathkona. Alongside the Greek pantheon, the gods of Palmyra, Hatra,
7:01	·	and a nearby town called Anath were worshipped.
7:05	·	The city's nineteen temples blended classical, Mesopotamian, and local architectural traditions.
7:12	·	Most had a central courtyard ringed by shrines and rooms used for ritual dining. The principal
7:19	·	sanctuary was usually painted with images of the god surrounded by worshippers. An example found
7:25	·	in the Temple of Bel showed a Roman officer named Julius Terentius offering sacrifice.
	·	Synagogue
7:33	·	Beneath the embankment that buttressed the city wall, the Yale expedition discovered a
7:38	·	third-century synagogue decorated with paintings. Apparently untroubled by the commandment against
7:45	·	graven images, the Jews of Dura had frescoed almost every part of their main assembly room.
7:51	·	The frescoes depicted the sacred history of the Jewish people.
7:56	·	Among the 58 surviving scenes were the discovery of the infant Moses, the parting of the Red Sea,
8:03	·	the anointing of David by Samuel, and Esther with Mordechai. Their style closely recalled that of
8:10	·	the paintings in Dura's pagan temples; the same artists were likely responsible for both. Greek
8:17	·	and Aramaic inscriptions commemorated the work of decoration, and Persian dipinti – apparently
8:23	·	left by visitors from Mesopotamia – commented appreciatively on the paintings.
	·	House church
8:30	·	A short distance from the synagogue, in what at first appeared to be a typical house,
8:35	·	the archaeologists discovered a Christian church dating to the early third century.
8:41	·	On one side was a meeting hall with space for about 100 worshippers;
8:46	·	on the other, a baptistery with a large font.
8:50	·	The baptistery had been decorated with frescoes. Though less well-preserved than
8:55	·	those in the synagogue, some scenes could be identified. They illustrated both the
9:00	·	Old and the New Testaments: Adam and Eve, David and Goliath, Christ walking on water,
9:07	·	the three Marys visiting the tomb. Like so much else from Dura, these frescoes are unique,
9:14	·	shedding a precious and unexpected light on early Christian iconography.
	·	The fall of Dura
9:20	·	The end of Dura-Europos was brought about by an epic clash between the
9:25	·	Roman Empire and Sassanid Persia. Follow the link onscreen and in the description
9:30	·	to watch Historia Militum's video on the siege and fall of Dura-Europos.
9:37	·	In the video description, you'll find links to my Spring 2026 trips: the Roman Ruins of Spain and In
9:45	·	the Footsteps of Alexander the Great. You'll also see a link to the Toldinstone Patreon page, and
9:52	·	to my other channels, Toldinstone Footnotes and Scenic Routes to the Past. Thanks for watching.