ANCIENT WARFARE

The oldest remaining documentation of military campaigns come from the Middle East where the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hittites, and Persians were the main combatants. Read about the rise of standing armies and how battles were fought 4000 years ago.

The oldest remaining documentation of military campaigns come from the Middle East where the

Continuation of Part I: Ancient Egyptian Military

Weapons

The Old Kingdom had soldiers equipped with a great variety of weapons: shields, spears, cudgels, maces, daggers, bows and arrows. Quivers and battle axes came into use before the second Intermediary Period, which was a time of revolution in the Egyptian martial arts. The earliest metal arrowheads date from the 11th dynasty (ca.2000 BCE), made of copper hardened by hammering.

The principal weapon of the Egyptian army was the bow and arrow. Nubian mercenaries formed the best archery units. It was transformed into a formidable weapon with the introduction by the Hyksos of the composite bow made of horn, sinews and wood, combined with body armour - which was often little more than broad leather straps - and the war-chariot, enabling fast attacks at long range .

	The infantry of the New Kingdom carried spears, battle axes, scimitars and daggers. The scimitar (xpS - khepesh) came to Egypt from Syria, where Thutmose III used it first. There are many depictions of the gods handing the pharaoh this weapon of victory. It quickly became part of the infantryman's basic equipment.

The military accepted new technologies , such as the use of bronze in the Middle Kingdom or of iron in the New Kingdom and above all during the Late Dynastic Period, faster than the general population, where stone tools were still used when bronze would have been available, but was too expensive.

Even so, the bronze Middle Kingdom arrowheads may have been imported from the Middle East and their production in Egypt became common only in the time of the 18th dynasty.

	After the bowmen, either on foot or on chariots, had softened up the enemy forces with a shower of arrows, the infantry would rush in, breaking their ranks with hand weapons, maces with wooden handles and stone - later metal - heads, battle axes, hatchets, clubs, swords, scimitars and daggers.

While Egypt produced at least part of the copper it needed, it had to import all the tin required to make bronze and was also wholly dependent on import for iron, which put it at a disadvantage vis à vis the rising empires of the east during the first millennium BCE.

The techniques for working copper and bronze, i.e. casting and subsequent hammering may have been developed by the Egyptians themselves; forging, the only way iron could be worked in the ancient world was imported from Europe.

The spear was used for stabbing, giving greater reach to the soldier. Charioteers carried with them, apart from their bows and arrows, a number of spears and were thus not left weaponless after shooting their arrows.

Many of the new arms that came into use during the New Kingdom had their origin in Asia. The helmets Ramses III ordered distributed looked like Syrian helmets, the main difference being that the Syrian helmet was decorated with a horsetail while the Egyptian had cords ending in pendants. The body armour was of Asiatic origin too. It consisted of a leather jacket covered with little metal scales, not completely protecting the soldier from arrows, as the Egyptians could conclude from their own successes, or the Syrians when a lucky shot killed the disguised Ahab.

34 And a certain man drew a bow at a venture , and smote the king of Israel between the joints of the harness. Kings 1, 22

Despite such deficiencies, the charioteers of Thutmose III wore occasionally scale armour centuries before Ahab's mishap, but many preferred broad bands (of leather possibly) crossed over the chest or carried a shield. Their torso was thus more or less protected, while the lower body was shielded by the chariot itself. The pharaohs often wore armour with inlaid semi-precious stones, which offered better protection, the stones being harder than the metal used for arrow tips. It is difficult to estimate, how widespread the use of armour or helmets really was, as the reliefs depict Egyptians very rarely carrying protection other than shields.


Despite such deficiencies, the charioteers of Thutmose III wore occasionally scale armour centuries before Ahab's mishap, but many preferred broad bands (of leather possibly) crossed over the chest or carried a shield. Their torso was thus more or less protected, while the lower body was shielded by the chariot itself. The pharaohs often wore armour with inlaid semi-precious stones, which offered better protection, the stones being harder than the metal used for arrow tips. It is difficult to estimate, how widespread the use of armour or helmets really was, as the reliefs depict Egyptians very rarely carrying protection other than shields. In peace time the weapons were stored in royal armouries. Their distribution to the soldiers before a campaign was an occasion for a splendid ceremony attended by the pharaoh. Ramses III declared at such an event speaking to the assembled soldiers from a balcony Wake your arms, draw your weapons in order to destroy the rebelling lands who do not know Egypt, the strength of Amen my father.

The Chariot

History


Chariots seem to have originated in Mesopotamia in the third millenium BCE. The highly mobile two-wheeled war chariot carrying a driver and an archer armed with a short compound bow revolutionized military tactics after 1700 BC.

This expensive weapon spread throughout the Middle East and and is thought to have reached Egypt with the conquering Hyksos, though there is no factual evidence to support this view. It spread into Asia Minor, Greece and was known in Northern Europe by 1500 BCE. With the advent of horseback riding by 1000 BCE it lost most of its military importance.

The Egyptian chariot betrayed its Asiatic origin in a number of ways, by the names of its parts which were Semitic and by its decorations which often took the form of date palm branches or animals opposing each other, both Syrian motifs.

Design

The Egyptians improved the design of the chariot by making it lighter, changing the position of the driver so he would stand closer to the chariot's axle and covering the axle with metal to reduce friction. Some wooden parts were strengthened by covering them with metal sleeves. These changes lightened the load on the horses and greatly improved their performance. Saddle-pads were placed on the horses' backs and the yoke was attached to them.

Leather girths around the horses' chests and bellies prevented them from slipping. A single shaft attached to the yoke pulled the chariots. The chariot was built of pieces of wood which had been bent into the required shape possibly by immersing them in boiling hot water for several hours, bending them and then letting them dry. Various kinds of wood were used: elm, ash for the axles and sycamore for the footboard.

	The spokes of the wheels were made by bending six pieces of wood into a V-shape. These were glued together in such a way that every spoke was composed of two halves of two V-shaped pieces, forming a hexagonal star. The tips of the V's were fastened to the hub by wet cattle intestines, which hardened when they dried.

The tires were made of sections of wood, tied to the wheel with leather lashings which passed through slots in the tire sections. The thongs didn't come in contact with the ground, making the chariot more reliable by reducing the wear and tear. German carpenters who reconstructed such a chariot needed about six hundred hours to complete it.

Use

	The lack of springs made the chariots unsuited for use in rocky terrain, where they could easily overturn or break, and even at the best of times shooting arrows let alone taking proper aim from a speeding chariot must have been a difficult task. Chariots fought therefore in closed ranks overwhelming the enemy by the quantity of missiles rather than by their accuracy. If the chariot was about to overturn, the crew would try to jump off the open back before it happened, then, if the chariot was broken, catch the horses and ride on them to safety. What chariots were certainly very much suited for was the pursuit of fleeing enemy on an open plain, when spears could be used for stabbing them in the back.

The Egyptians knew two types of chariots, the war-chariot which had six-spoked wheels while the carriage chariots had only four spokes. The six spoked wheels could be made lighter and were better supported than the heavier four spoked wheels, making the whole chariot more reliable. Serving in the charioteer corps did not come cheap. The recruit was allotted a team of horses from the royal stables and five attendants, whom he had to equip. The chariot itself cost him, according to a possible prejudiced scribe, three deben of silver for the shaft and five for the body, a small fortune, which only noblemen could afford. War chariots were manned by a driver holding a whip and the reigns and a fighter, generally wielding a bow or, after spending all his arrows, a short spear of which he had a few. When hunting, the pharaohs would sometimes dispense with the driver and enjoy chasing after their prey on their own.

Seagoing vessels: warships and merchant men

Old Kingdom Vessels

Keelless seagoing vessels like this one from the time of King Sahure (2500 BCE) traded with the Phoenician cities, importing cedar wood and other merchandise, and were sent as the first Egyptian trade expedition to the Land of Punt.

The bipedal mast carried a vertical sail. It was steered by six oars and had sixteen rowing oars. A rock served as anchor. The bow was decorated with an eye.

I went down on the sea in a ship of one hundred and fifty cubits long and forty cubits wide, with one hundred and fifty sailors of the best of Egypt who had seen heaven and earth, and whose hearts were stronger than lions.

Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, c. 2200 BCE

Crews on Egyptian ships were large, as their sailing capabilities were low and they had to be rowed often. Ancient ships and not just Egyptian vessels, could not sail into the wind so that tacking was impossible. If the wind was unfavorable rowing was the only means to get anywhere.

This model of a 15th century merchant ship was made after the wall painting (below) at Deir el Bahri. The ship was about 22 metres long and 5 metres wide. It didn't have a wooden keel but got its stability from a thick rope fastened under tension at either extremity of the ship. There were fifteen rowing oars on either side, two connected oars used as rudder, a single mast and a 15 metre wide horizontal sail. The stern was decorated with a carved lotus flower

Expansion during the New Kingdom

A major expedition to the Land of Punt (probably in the Horn of Africa) down the Red Sea and into the Indian Ocean was undertaken under Queen Hatshepsut.

Bigger ships of seventy to eighty tons suited to long voyages became quite common (In size they might be compared to Columbus's Santa Maria with a displacement of 100 tons or his smaller ships with about fifty).


	This model of a 13th century warship was made after wall paintings at Medinet Habu depicting the victory of Ramses III over the Sea Peoples. The high bulwarks protected sailors and soldiers from enemy missiles. Eighteen oars gave it the manoeuvrability which was a decisive factor in the Egyptian victory. Like all Egyptian ships of this period, it was not laid on a keel, but got its structural strength from a gangway connecting stern to bow. It had a single mast with a horizontal sail. The bow was decorated with a lion's head crushing a human skull.

This model of a Philistine man of war was equally constructed according to the Medinet Habu paintings. Its lack of rowing oars may have been a distinct disadvantage in the confined space of the Nile delta where they must have been incapable of using their ram against the more agile rowed Egyptian vessels. Its design was superior to that of the Egyptian ships, having a proper keel.

The Late Period

King Necho II (609-594 BCE) invested huge sums in the development of an Egyptian war fleet. According to Herodotus he had triremes built in both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. Some scholars think that the ships he built were biremes and the development of the trireme took place in the next century and was part of the Egyptian war effort against Persia.

The models are at the Haifa Naval Museum, Israel.

Next Tuesday, continuation of Part I: Ancient Egyptian Military
Fortresses
Siege Warfare

On This Day In History

Birthdates which occurred on July 15:
1573 Inigo Jones London, architect; restored St Paul's cathedral
1606 Rembrandt van Rijn Leiden, Netherlands, painter (Night Watch)
1701 Pierre Joubert became oldest known Canadian (113 y 124 d at death)
1704 August Gottlieb Spangenberg founder of Moravian Church in N America
1779 Clement Clarke Moore US, author ('Twas the Night Before Xmas)
1796 Thomas Bulfinch mythologist (Bulfinch's Mythology)
1850 St Frances Xavier Cabrini [Mother Cabrini], 1st US saint
1872 Jos‚ Enrique Rod¢ Montevideo, philosopher/educator/essayist
1875 Frank "Pop" Morgenweck basketball hall of famer (elected 1962)
1889 Marjorie Rambeau SF Calif, actress (Primrose Path, Torch Song)
1902 Jean Rey Belgium, pres of European Commission (1967-70)
1913 Cowboy (Lloyd) Copas (country singer: Alabam, Goodbye Kisses, Signed, Sealed and Delivered; killed in plane crash with singer, Patsy Cline)
1913 Murvyn Vye Quincy Mass, actor (Bob Cummings Show)
1919 Iris Murdoch Ireland, novelist (Severed Head)
1925 Phil Carey Hackensack NJ, actor (Asa Buchanan-One Life to Live)
1927 Carmen Zapata NYC, actress (Hagen, Viva Valdez, Man & the City)
1932 Nina Van Pallandt Coopenhagen Denmark, actress (American Gigolo)
1934 Harrison Birtwistle Accringto, Lancashire, composer (Trombeau)
1935 Alex Karras Gary Ind, NFLer (Detroit Lions)/actor (George-Webster)
1935 Ken Kercheval Wolcottville Ind, actor (Cliff Barnes-Dallas)
1939 Patrick Wayne LA Calif, actor (Rounder, Shirley, Beyond Atlantis)
1943 Diligenti quintuplets Buenos Aires, Argentina
1944 Jan-Michael Vincent Denver, actor (Hooper, Tribes, Buster & Billie)
1945 Gene Upshaw NFL offensive tackle (Oakland Raider)
1946 Linda Ronstadt Tucson Az, singer (Different Drum)
1948 Enrique Basilio hurler, 1st lady to light Olympic flame (Mexico-1968)
1949 Trevor Horn rock producer (Buggles-Video Killed, Yes, Frankie)
1952 Jesse Ventura [James Janos] wrestler/actor/politician (MN Governor)
1956 Kathy Kreiner Canada, giant slalom (Olympic-gold-1976)
1960 Kim Alexis Lockport NY, model (Sports Illustrated swimsuit cover)
1960 Willie Aames Newport Beach Ca, actor (8 is Enough, Paradise, Zapped)
1961 Forest Whitaker actor (Bloodsport, Platoon, Stakeout)
1962 Brigitte Nielsen Eisinore Denmark, actress (Red Sonja, Rocky IV)
1963 Shari Headley Brooklyn NY, actress (Mimi Reed-All My Children)
1966 Kristoff St John NYC, actor (Adam-Generations, Young & Restless)
1973 Brian Austin Green N Hollywood Cal, actor (David-Beverly Hills 90210)

Deaths which occurred on July 15:
0668 Constantine II, emperor of Byzantium, dies at 37
1085 Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia & Calabria, dies at 70
1274 John F Bonaventura, Ital/French theologist/dominican/saint
1685 James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of Charles II, executed
1868 William Thomas Morton, dentist (1st to use ether), dies
1869 A J Hayne black captain of Arkansas militia, assassinated
1883 Tom Thumb, famous small person (40"), dies of a stroke at 44
1940 Robert Wadlow world's tallest man (8'11.1"), dies at 32
1948 John J Persing US General (WW I), dies at 87
1957 George Cleveland actor (Grampa-Lassie), dies at 74
1958 Julia Lennon mother of Beatle John, dies in an auto accident
1980 Eddie Jackson comedian (Jimmy Durante Show), dies at 84
1982 Wendy Caulfield 1st Green River victim, found near Seattle
1983 Eddie Foy Jr actor (Eddie-Fair Exchange), dies of cancer at 78
1986 Benny Rubin actor/comedian (Benny Rubin Show), dies at 87
1986 Florence Halop actress (Florence-Night Court), dies at 63
1988 Eleanor Estes author (Ginger Pye, Moffats), dies at 82
1990 Troy Dixon rapper (Trouble T-Roy of Heavy D), dies at 22 from a fall
1991 Bert Convy actor (Snoop Sisters, Win Lose or Draw), dies at 57

Reported: MISSING in ACTION

1966 CONNELL JAMES JOSEPH WILMINGTON DE.
[03/06/74 REMAINS RETURNED]
1966 DENNIS MARK V. OH
[NOT ON OFFICIAL DIA LIST. LOST IN DONG HA AREA]
1967 CASSELL ROBIN B. FORT HUACHUCA AZ.
1968 BIRD LEONARD ADRIAN WILMINGTON DE.
1968 JAMES GOBEL D. FAIRLAND OK.
[03/14/73 RELEASED BY DRV, ALIVE AND WELL 98]
1968 MARTIN LARRY E. WAKEFIELD KS.
["REMAINS RETURNED 7/31/89, ID 11/08/89"]
1969 POLSTER HARMON CLEVELAND OH.
1969 WALKER MICHAEL S. COLUMBIA LA.
1971 TAYLOR TED J. LANCASTER SC.

POW / MIA Data & Bios supplied by
the P.O.W. NETWORK. Skidmore, MO. USA.

On this day...
1099 Jerusalem falls to the Crusaders
1205 Pope Innocent III decrees Jews are doomed to perpetual servitude and subjugation due to crucifixion of Jesus
1410 Poland & Lithuania defeat Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg
1662 Charles II grants charter to establish Royal Society in London
1779 US troops under Gen A Wayne conquer Ft Stony Point, NY
1789 The electors of Paris set up a "Commune" to live without the authority of the government.
1795 "Marseillaise" becomes French national anthem
1806 Zebulon Pike began his journey to explore the Southwest; Pike was the US Army officer who in 1805 led an exploring party in search of the source of the Mississippi River
1815 Napoleon Bonaparte captured
1830 3 Indian tribes, Sioux, Sauk & Fox, signs a treaty giving the US most of Minnesota, Iowa & Missouri
1856 Natal established as a British colony separate from Cape Colony
1863 Confederate raider Bill Anderson and his Bushwackers attack Huntsville, Missouri, stealing $45,000 from the local bank.
1864 Troop train loaded with Confederate prisoners collided with a coal train killing 65 and injuring 109 of 955 aboard
1867 SF Merchant's Exchange opens
1869 Margarine is patented in Paris, for use by French Navy(One more brilliant French victory)
1870 Georgia becomes last confederate to be readmitted to US
1870 Hudson's Bay & Northwest Territories transferred to Canada
1870 Manitoba becomes 5th Canadian province & NW Territories created
1876 Baseballs 1st no-hitter, St Louis' George W Bradley no-hits Hartford
1888 Bandai volcano (Japan) erupts for 1st time in 1,000 years
1890 A Charlois discovers asteroid #294 Felicia
1893 Commodore Perry arrives in Japan
1901 NY Giant Christy Mathewson no-hits St Louis, 5-0
1904 1st Buddhist temple in US established, Los Angeles
1911 46" of rain (begining 7/14) falls in Baguio, Phillipines
1912 British National Health Insurance Act goes into effect
1914 Mexican president Huerta flees with 2 million pesos to Europe
1916 Boeing Co., originally known as Pacific Aero Products, was founded in Seattle.
1916 22.22" of rain falls in Altapass NC
1918 2nd Battle of Marne began during WW I
1920 Ruth ties his record of 29 HRs in a season
1922 1st duck-billed platypus publicly exhibited in US, at NY zoo
1929 1st airport hotel opens-Oakland Ca
1932 President Hoover cuts own salary 15%
1933 Wiley Post began 1st solo flight around the world
1937 Japanese attack Marco Polo Bridge, invade China
1940 1st betatron placed in operation, Urbana, Il
1941 Florey & Heatley present freeze dried mold cultures (Pencillin)
1942 The first supply flight from India to China over the 'Hump' is flown
1944 Greenwich Observatory damaged by WW II flying bomb
1946 British North Borneo Co transfers rights to British crown
1946, the comedy team of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis debuts.
1948 Pres Truman nominated for another term
1949 Czech tennis stars Jaroslav Drobny & Vladimir Cernik, defect to US
1950 K Reinmuth discovers asteroid #1750 Eckert
1952 1st transatlantic helicopter flight begins
1954 1st coml jet transport plane built in US tested (Boeing 707)
1954 KOCO TV channel 5 in Oklahoma City, OK (ABC) begins broadcasting
1954 WBOC TV channel 16 in Salisbury, MD (CBS/NBC/ABC) begins broadcasting
1955 WNDU TV channel 16 in South Bend, IN (NBC) begins broadcasting
1957 "Whole Lotta Shakin' Going On" released --- Lewis, Jerry Lee
1958 Pres Eisenhower sends US troops to Lebanon; they stay 3 months
1960 Balt Orioles' Brooks Robinson goes 5 for 5 including the cycle
1963 Paul McCartney is fined œ17 for speeding
1964 Barry M Goldwater (Sen-R-Az) nominated for president by Republicans
1965 US scientists display close-up photos of Mars from Mariner IV
1967 LA Wolves beat Wash Whips 6-5 in OT to be United Soccer Ass champs
1967 Roberto DeVicenzo of Argentina wins golf's British Open
1968 "One Life to Live" premieres on TV
1968 NJ Americans moved to Comack & become NY Nets (ABA)
1968 Soap opera "One Life To Live" premiers
1969 Cincinnati Red Lee May hits 4 HRs in a doubleheader
1969 Rod Carew ties the record with his 7th steal of home in a season
1970 Denmark beats Italy 2-0 in 1st world female soccer championship
1971 Pres Nixon announces he would visit People's Rep of China
1972 Lee Trevino wins his 2nd consecutive golf's British Open
1973 Calif Angel Nolan Ryan 2nd no-hitter beats Detroit Tigers, 6-0
1973 Ray Davies, announces retirement from Kinks then attempts suicide
1973 Willie McCovey becomes 15th to hit 400 HRs
1975 NL beats AL 6-3 in 46th All Star Game (Milwaukee's County Stadium)
1975 Soyuz 19 & Apollo 18 launched; rendezvous 2 days later
1976 36-hr kidnap of 26 schoolchildren & their bus driver in Calif
1980 Johnny Bench hits his 314th HR as a catcher breaks Yogi Berra's record
1982 Body of Wendy Caulfield, 1st Green River victim, found near Seattle
1982 Columbia flies to Kennedy Space Center via Dyess AFB, Texas
1982 Senate confirms George Shultz as 60th sec of state by vote of 97-0
1983 8 killed, 54 wounded, by Armenian extremists bomb at Orly, France
1984 Hollis Stacy wins her 3rd US women's open golf title
1986 AL beats NL for 2nd time in 15 yrs, winning 57th All-Star Game 3-2
1987 John Poindexter testifies at Iran-Contra hearings
1991 US troops leave northern Iraq
1992 Arkansas Gov. Bill Clinton claimed the Democratic presidential nomination in New York.
1996 Prince Charles & Princess Di sign divorce papers

Holidays
Note: Some Holidays are only applicable on a given "day of the week"
Crisis of Confidience Day
Captive Nations Week (Day 3)
Brunei : Sultan's Birthday
Japan : Bon Festival/Feast of Lanterns/Black Ship Day (1853)
Pakistan : Mohammed's Ascension

Religious Observances
Anglican : St Swithin's Day
Muslim-Pakistan : Mohammed's Ascension
RC : Commemoration of Bl Anne Mary Javouhey, French virgin
Luth : Commemor of Vladimir, 1st Christian ruler of Russia
Old Catholic : Feast of St Henry II, Holy Roman emperor (1014-24)
RC : Commemoration of St Bonaventure, bishop/confessor/doctor
Feast of St. Henry II, Holy Roman emperor (1014-24), confessor.

Religious History
1099 The Muslim citizens of Jerusalem surrendered their city to the armies of the FirstCrusade. The Crusaders then proceeded, through misguided religious zeal, to massacrethousands of unarmed men, women and children.
1779 Birth of Clement C. Moore, American Episcopal educator. His fame endures today,not as a theologian, but as the author of a completely mythical poem: 'Twas the Night BeforeChristmas' (1823).
1814 Birth of Edward Caswall, English clergyman and hymn translator. Today we stillsing Caswall's English versions of the hymns 'Jesus, The Very Thought of Thee' and 'WhenMorning Gilds the Skies.'
1823 In Rome, the church known as St Paul's Outside the Walls was destroyed by a fire.Its original edifice was erected in AD 324 by the Roman emperor Constantine.
1951 The First Southern Baptist Church to be constituted in the state of Wyoming was formed in Casper by a group of families principally related to the oil industry.

Source: William D. Blake. ALMANAC OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1987.

Thought for the day :
" It is better to live rich than to die rich. "

Today's 'You Might Be A Redneck If' Joke...
"You get Odor-Eaters as a Christmas present."

Disclaimer: Opinions posted on Free Republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of Free Republic or its management. All materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works.