Constantine's Vision of the Cross ~ Early Accounts and Backstory

Gloria Romanorum ^ | 10/27/17 | Florentius

[Antoninus]

Constantine's great victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge took place on October 28, AD 312. The day before — October 27 — is the date traditionally given for the miraculous vision and dream which Constantine experienced prior to the battle. This vision has been the subject of debate in both scholarly and popular imagination for hundreds of years. But what really happened on that day 1,705 years ago that changed forever the course of human history?

As a prelude to the famous accounts of this vision, it should be noted that Constantine also seems to have had pagan theophany in the early years of his reign. Writing sometime between AD 307 and AD 310, an anonymous Gallic panegyricist describes Constantine’s presence on the frontier as almost miraculous in restoring order after a barbarian incursion. He explains the reason why as follows:

"Fortune herself so ordered this matter that the happy outcome of your affairs prompted you to convey to the immortal gods what you had vowed at the very spot where you had turned aside toward the most beautiful temple in the whole world, or rather, to the deity made manifest, as you saw. For you saw, I believe, O Constantine, your Apollo, accompanied by Victory, offering you laurel wreaths, each one of which carries a portent of thirty years. For this is the number of human ages which are owed to you without fail—beyond the old age of Nestor." [In Praise of the Later Roman Emperors, page 248-50]

This reputed vision of Apollo took place at least two years prior to Constantine’s more famous vision of a cross in the sky. Interestingly, this vision fits in well with the Christian accounts of later events.

In his treatise entitled Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died (written before AD 320), Lactantius offers the earliest account of Constantine's Christian theophany. Incidentally, this passage also provides the date for the Battle of the Milvian Bridge:

"A civil war broke out between Constantine and Maxentius. Although Maxentius kept himself within Rome, because the soothsayers had foretold that if he went out of it he should perish, yet he conducted the military operations by able generals....At length Constantine, with steady courage and a mind prepared for every event, led his whole forces to the neighborhood of Rome, and encamped them opposite to the Milvian bridge. The anniversary of the reign of Maxentius approached, that is, the sixth of the kalends of November [i.e. the 27th of October], and the fifth year of his reign was drawing to an end. "Constantine was directed in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delineated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked on their shields the letter Χ, with a perpendicular line drawn through it and turned round thus at the top, being the cipher of Christ (XP). Having this sign , his troops stood to arms.” [Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, Chapter 44]

Writing perhaps 20 years later, Eusebius Pamphilus offers a more detailed account in his Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine—and what’s more, claims that he heard it directly from Constantine’s own lips, confirmed with an oath. When reading the following, note especially Constantine’s confusion and doubts about the source of the vision and the identity of the God he saw:

"Being convinced, however, that he needed some more powerful aid than his military forces could afford him, on account of the wicked and magical enchantments which were so diligently practiced by the tyrant, he sought Divine assistance, deeming the possession of arms and a numerous soldiery of secondary importance, but believing the co-operating power of Deity invincible and not to be shaken. He considered, therefore, on what God he might rely for protection and assistance….

"Accordingly he called on him with earnest prayer and supplications that he would reveal to him who he was, and stretch forth his right hand to help him in his present difficulties. And while he was thus praying with fervent entreaty, a most marvelous sign appeared to him from heaven, the account of which it might have been hard to believe had it been related by any other person. But since the victorious emperor himself long afterwards declared it to the writer of this history, when he was honored with his acquaintance and society, and confirmed his statement by an oath, who could hesitate to accredit the relation, especially since the testimony of aftertime has established its truth?

"He said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY THIS. At this sight he himself was struck with amazement, and his whole army also, which followed him on this expedition, and witnessed the miracle.

"He said, moreover, that he doubted within himself what the import of this apparition could be. And while he continued to ponder and reason on its meaning, night suddenly came on; then in his sleep the Christ of God appeared to him with the same sign which he had seen in the heavens, and commanded him to make a likeness...and to use it as a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies…. "Being struck with amazement at the extraordinary vision, and resolving to worship no other God save Him who had appeared to him, he sent for those who were acquainted with the mysteries of His doctrines, and enquired who that God was, and what was intended by the sign of the vision he had seen." [Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine, Book I, Chapter 29-32]

It should be noted that Christians at this time, Constantine included, didn’t think that the pagan gods were non-existent. On the contrary, they believed that they were demonic spirits who could and did appear to men. Furthermore, Constantine himself provides evidence that he believed that pagan prophecy was, in fact, true and pointed directly, if inadvertently, toward the salvation of the world under the auspices of Jesus Christ. In his Oration to the Assembly of the Saints, Constantine puts forward his belief that the Erythræan Sibyl, writing in Asia Minor hundreds of years before the birth of Christ, predicted both His coming and His judgment upon mankind.

Furthermore, in the same speech, Constantine calls out Virgil’s 4th Eclogue as a further prophetic writing to support the premise that the coming of Christ was predicted not only by the Hebrew prophets, but by pagan ones as well.

Many, no doubt, look for political reasons behind Constantine’s shift from pagan piety to Christian devotion. But frankly, the political explanations make very little sense. Why would an emperor motivated purely by power, abandon the religious practices favored by an estimated 80-90% of Roman citizens in AD 312 to take up the banner of a small and despised sect which, as recently as six years before was subject to the harshest penalties of Roman law?

It seems clear that Constantine was willing, no matter what the consequences, to follow what he perceived as the divine will. An edict of Constantine, written later in his reign and recorded in Eusebius's Life, gives a glimpse into his mindset, now clearly Christian and devoid of any trace of doubt or pagan syncretism which may have existed earlier:

"To all who entertain just and wise sentiments respecting the character of the Supreme Being, it has long been most clearly evident, and beyond the possibility of doubt, how vast a difference there has ever been between those who maintain a careful observance of the hallowed duties of the Christian religion, and those who treat this religion with hostility or contempt. But at this present time, we may see by still more manifest proofs, and still more decisive instances, but how unreasonable it were to question this truth, and how mighty is the power of the Supreme God: since it appears that they who faithfully observe His commandments, are rewarded with abundant blessings, and are endued with well-grounded hope as well as ample power for the accomplishment of their undertakings. On the other hand, they who have cherished impious sentiments have experienced results corresponding to their evil choice….

"For whoever have addressed themselves with integrity for purpose to any course of action, keeping the fear of God continually before their thougths…such persons, though for a season they may have experienced painful trials, have borne their afflictions lightly, being supported by the belief of greater rewards in store for them. And their character has acquired a brighter lustre in proportion to the severity of their past sufferings….

"I would desire never to be forgetful of the gratitude due to His grace….I am most certainly persuaded that I myself owe my life, my every breath, in short, my very inmost and secret thoughts, entirely to the favor of the Supreme God.” [Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine, Book II, Chapters 26-29]

For more on the life of this amazing historical personage and his family members, see the following:

Constantine -- Military Hero and Christian Emperor. Death of Constantius I, the father of Constantine the Great ~ Primary Accounts
October 28, AD 312 ~ Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge
Constantine's Execution of Crispus and Fausta
This day in Late Roman History (August 7): Happy Birthday, Constantius II
The deeds of Saint Helena, as described by Eusebius a few years after her death
September 18, AD 324 -- Constantine defeats Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis
May 22, AD 337 ~ Death of Constantine the Great, as recorded by Eusebius Pamphilus

[Antoninus]

The fact that Constantine was reputed to have seen a vision of Apollo earlier in his reign was mentioned on this thread and it's a fascinating point worthy of further exploration.

We know a good bit about Constantine from the ancient sources -- much more than you'll find in the capsule summaries of his life by those who wish to use him to uphold their own personal views of Christianity, or tear down Christians more generally. To say the least, he was a deep, visionary and very complex individual.

[aspasia]

His love is chemical!

Cuz when you lose the battle, even with the cross, then what--abandon the cross?

[Antoninus]

Cuz when you lose the battle, even with the cross, then what--abandon the cross?

Did you miss this part of his Oration?

"For whoever have addressed themselves with integrity for purpose to any course of action, keeping the fear of God continually before their thougths ... such persons, though for a season they may have experienced painful trials, have borne their afflictions lightly, being supported by the belief of greater rewards in store for them. And their character has acquired a brighter lustre in proportion to the severity of their past sufferings....

[aspasia]

Two crosses then. One magic, the other tragic.

[wbarmy]

Many, no doubt, look for political reasons behind Constantine’s shift from pagan piety to Christian devotion. But frankly, the political explanations make very little sense. Why would an emperor motivated purely by power, abandon the religious practices favored by an estimated 80-90% of Roman citizens in AD 312 to take up the banner of a small and despised sect which, as recently as six years before was subject to the harshest penalties of Roman law?

I think that in fact, the 80-90% of Roman citizens being pagan was manifestly incorrect. There are good studies which show that as much as 50% of the population had become Christian and that this was having an effect on the military. Think 40 martyrs of Sevaste.

[Antoninus]

There are good studies which show that as much as 50% of the population had become Christian and that this was having an effect on the military.

You'll have to provide some sources for this claim. I have never seen anything like the empire being 50% Christian in the early 4th century in any serious scholarly work. Maybe by the end of the 4th century, but during the Great Persecution or early in Constantine's reign, no way.

That said, there were definitely Christian units in the army from at least a century before Constantine:

When rain saved the Thundering Legion ~ Legio XII ~ during the Macromannic Wars of Marcus Aurelius

[wbarmy]

“By the beginning of the 4th century, and the reign of Constantine, civil wars and foreign incursions had taken their toll. The number had grown again, likely to somewhere around 55 million,”

https://www.unrv.com/empire/roman-population.php

He estimates that because of these reasons in 350 AD there were 33.9 million Christians or 56.5% of estimated population of 60 million.

https://thehlukejourney.wordpress.com/2017/04/02/5-reasons-christianity-increased-to-56-of-world-population-by-350-ad/

[Antoninus]

He estimates that because of these reasons in 350 AD there were 33.9 million Christians or 56.5% of estimated population of 60 million.

This is a mere mathematical extrapolation by sociologist Rodney Stark. For what it's worth, even using Stark's estimate, he shows the Christian population at 10.5% in AD 300, immediately before the reign of Constantine, and at 56.5% in AD 350, which is 13 years after the death of Constantine. So even if we assume these numbers are close to correct (and they seem to be a stretch based on what actual classical historians have posited), they still show Christianity to be a significant minority (less than 20%) at the time Constantine saw the cross in the sky in AD 312.

Here's what Cambridge History of Christianity has to say:

“The figures proposed by Hopkins, MacMullen and Stark are optimistic, but do not support a radical reinterpretation. Recent epigraphic discoveries have, if anything, suggested a more gradual winding down of the pagan cults than Geffcken supposed, and even continuity at some shrines until the end of the fourth century. The empty temples and dead gods are now seen more as a symptom of economic readjustment in the later third century caused by barbarian pressure on the frontiers, militarization of the civil service and an increased demand for revenues, particularly under the tetrarchy. This was the political background to the Christians’ rise to between 5 and 10 per cent of the empire’s population c. 300."

~Trombley, The Geographical Spread of Christianity, in Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine.

[wbarmy]

Sir, the point was that there were a lot of Christians and Constantine could have stuck his political finger into the wind and saw which way it was blowing.

Personally, I think it was much higher because of the reactions of different provinces. All of them saw that the number of Christians in their regions was high and sought to either get rid of them or befriend them. But nobody ignored them.

And all I said was that there were studies done. You might disagree with them, but studies were one and I showed one of them.

[Antoninus]

Sir, the point was that there were a lot of Christians and Constantine could have stuck his political finger into the wind and saw which way it was blowing.

Sorry, I don't agree. That's a 20/20 hindsight position. For most of Constantine's youth, Christianity was verboten and from at least AD 303 to AD 311, it was actively and violently persecuted across the empire. If anything, by AD 311, there were probably less practicing Christians than there were in AD 300. Aside from those who were outright killed or driven into exile, many Christians became apostates during the Great Persecution -- sacrificing to the gods rather than suffering.

What Constantine did in AD 312 was something counter-intuitive, politically crazy, and made little sense to many of his contemporaries. He truly believed he was acting as instructed by the God of the Christians. On a more pragmatic level, things worked out for him because he allied himself with a group that offered not numbers but spiritual and cultural dynamism within an empire that was otherwise socially enervated. If you read Julian the Apostate's advice to a pagan priest written ca. AD 364, it becomes pretty clear what made Christianity so attractive.

[wbarmy]

Respectfully, did you not see your own logical error.

You state that Christianity was hated, but then turn around and show why it was so attractive.

Just because certain political groups currently existent want to minimize Christianity as much as possible, does not mean they were not there. The number of corroborating stories about Christians in all facets of Roman life means they were not some small insignificant group. Senior Christian leaders showed up to counsel Constantine, so somebody had to know who they were, even in that time of persecution.

[Antoninus]

You state that Christianity was hated, but then turn around and show why it was so attractive.

There's no logical error there. Something can be hated and attractive at the same time. Julian hated Christianity but recognized what made it attractive. Christianity was hated by those who embraced paganism, and especially those who viewed the pagan divinities as the official cult of the empire. It was attractive to those who appreciated the charitable aspects of the faith, the virtues of Jesus and the saints, and the fervor of the Christians who actually seemed to believe their doctrines, whereas ordinary pagans increasingly did not.

My point is not to say that there weren’t any Christians in AD 312. It’s simply to point out that they were a small minority and that Constantine’s decision to follow Christianity was less a political calculation than an act of almost reckless faith.

[teppe]

Question, since Constantine accepted the semi-arian baptism by Eusibius of Nicodemia and also had Athenasius expelled .....

....should Constantine be excommunicated as a Heretic?

[Antoninus]

....should Constantine be excommunicated as a Heretic?

Arian baptism is considered valid by the Fathers. His expulsion of Athanasius may have been unjust, but it was hardly heretical. Also, it's hard to excommunicate someone who's dead.