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‘Why does the word circumcision appear so many times in the New Testament?’

The circumcision of anyone was a sign that they were a physical heir to the land covenant Hashem made with Abraham. This is very important to understand if one is to understand the New Testament.

Gen 17:10 This is my covenant, which ye shall keep, between me and you and thy seed after thee; Every man child among you shall be circumcised.
Gen 17:11 And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of the covenant betwixt me and you.
Gen 15:18 In the same day the LORD made a covenant with Abram, saying, Unto thy seed have I given this land, from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates:

Part of the law of Moses written in the book of the law of Moses related to the curses that were under the law. If the Israelites (all 13 tribes since Manesseh received a portion) kept Hashems commandments they would receive blessings in the land. If they disobeyed they were to receive the curses.

Deu 28:15 But it shall come to pass, if thou wilt not hearken unto the voice of the LORD thy God, to observe to do all his commandments and his statutes which I command thee this day; that all these curses shall come upon thee, and overtake thee:

Because Solomon began idolatrous practices, he received the curse and lost 10 of the Tribes in 931 before zero.

1Ki 11:1 But king Solomon loved many strange women, together with the daughter of Pharaoh, women of the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, Zidonians, and Hittites;
1Ki 11:2 Of the nations concerning which the LORD said unto the children of Israel, Ye shall not go in to them, neither shall they come in unto you: for surely they will turn away your heart after their gods: Solomon clave unto these in love.
1Ki 11:3 And he had seven hundred wives, princesses, and three hundred concubines: and his wives turned away his heart.
1Ki 11:4 For it came to pass, when Solomon was old, that his wives turned away his heart after other gods: and his heart was not perfect with the LORD his God, as was the heart of David his father.
1Ki 11:5 For Solomon went after Ashtoreth the goddess of the Zidonians, and after Milcom the abomination of the Ammonites.
1Ki 11:6 And Solomon did evil in the sight of the LORD, and went not fully after the LORD, as did David his father.
1Ki 11:7 Then did Solomon build an high place for Chemosh, the abomination of Moab, in the hill that is before Jerusalem, and for Molech, the abomination of the children of Ammon.
1Ki 11:8 And likewise did he for all his strange wives, which burnt incense and sacrificed unto their gods.
1Ki 11:9 And the LORD was angry with Solomon, because his heart was turned from the LORD God of Israel, which had appeared unto him twice,
1Ki 11:10 And had commanded him concerning this thing, that he should not go after other gods: but he kept not that which the LORD commanded.
1Ki 11:11 Wherefore the LORD said unto Solomon, Forasmuch as this is done of thee, and thou hast not kept my covenant and my statutes, which I have commanded thee, I will surely rend the kingdom from thee, and will give it to thy servant.

Jeroboam, a great grand-child of Joseph and Ephraim, became King over the 10 tribes referred to in the Bible as the House of Israel (Gen 48:16). Solomon retained his own tribe, Judah, plus the tribe of Benjamin.

1Ki 11:28 And the man Jeroboam was a mighty man of valour: and Solomon seeing the young man that he was industrious, he made him ruler over all the charge of the house of Joseph.
1Ki 11:30 And Ahijah caught the new garment that was on him, and rent it in twelve pieces:
1Ki 11:31 And he said to Jeroboam, Take thee ten pieces: for thus saith the LORD, the God of Israel, Behold, I will rend the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to thee:
1Ki 11:32 (But he shall have one tribe for my servant David’s sake, and for Jerusalem’s sake, the city which I have chosen out of all the tribes of Israel:)

Jeroboam and the 10 tribes of the house of Israel began idolatrous practices.

1Ki 12:28 Whereupon the king took counsel, and made two calves of gold, and said unto them, It is too much for you to go up to Jerusalem: behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt.
1Ki 12:29 And he set the one in Bethel, and the other put he in Dan.
1Ki 12:30 And this thing became a sin: for the people went to worship before the one, even unto Dan.
As a result they lost the land of their inheritance of the land covenant that Hashem made with Abraham. They were cast out thus receiving the curse of law of the book of Moses. The Assyrian Empire in 721 before zero dispersed them and as of today have not returned to their lost inheritance.

Deu 28:25 The LORD shall cause thee to be smitten before thine enemies: thou shalt go out one way against them, and flee seven ways before them: and shalt be removed into all the kingdoms of the earth.
2Ki 17:6 In the ninth year of Hoshea the king of Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed them in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes.
2Ki 17:7 For so it was, that the children of Israel had sinned against the LORD their God, which had brought them up out of the land of Egypt, from under the hand of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and had feared other gods,
2Ki 17:23 Until the LORD removed Israel out of his sight, as he had said by all his servants the prophets. So was Israel carried away out of their own land to Assyria unto this day.

The whole New Testament is about the death of Yeshua and his redeeming the descendents of the forefathers who had received the curses of the law. That is what the subject of faith as all about. If one didn’t believe that Yeshua had died for those idolatrous sins, then he was still subject to the curses. The Pharisees fit that category. If one did accept Yeshua as his redeemer, then he would no longer be under the curse of the law (Gal 3:13). Furthermore, a physical circumcision was not necessary to prove that he was an heir. All he needed was to have faith. However, he still had to obey the law. One can not enter Yeshua’s earthly kingdom unless he obeys the laws of the kingdom. All nations have laws. Yeshua’s laws (the 10 commandments) are still in force. We read all about that in James 2:10-26. Only faith will not save you or permit you to enter the gates of the kingdom unless you keep the law. Faith without works is dead. Don’t let Gal 2:16 throw you off. There he is talking about the land covenant. Not the 10 commandments. The whole theme of the New testament is about going back to the promised land of the Abrahamic Covenant. Not many however, will return. They’re too busy waiting for a non-Scriptural rapture and many other things like not keeping the 7th day Sabbath which will be observed in the New earth.

What is he talking about 430 years in Galatians 3:17?

The 430 years, that came before the law at Sinai in 1446 before zero, was the year that the land covenant was confirmed by Abraham’s faith when he took Issaac to be sacrificed in 1876 when Isaac was 20 years old.

Blessings in your search for TRUTH