The FReeper Foxhole Remembers The Battle of Bunker Hill - Jan. 28th, 2003

http://www.charlestownonline.net/bunkerhillbattle.htm ^

[SAMWolf]

U.S. Military History, Current Events and Veterans Issues

Where Duty, Honor and Country
are acknowledged, affirmed and commemorated.

Our Mission:

The FReeper Foxhole is dedicated to Veterans of our Nation's military forces and to others who are affected in their relationships with Veterans.

We hope to provide an ongoing source of information about issues and problems that are specific to Veterans and resources that are available to Veterans and their families.

In the FReeper Foxhole, Veterans or their family members should feel free to address their specific circumstances or whatever issues concern them in an atmosphere of peace, understanding, brotherhood and support.

To list previous Foxhole Threads
or
to add The Foxhole to your sidebar
Click on the Logo

Resource Links For Veterans

Click on the pix

The Battle of Bunker Hill

On June 17, 1775 British regulars faced an assemblage of independently minded colonial militia at the Battle of Bunker Hill. By evening of that day the British held the Charlestown peninsula, and a new respect for the determination and resourcefulness of colonial forces. The colonials, if shaken from what was for many the first taste of war (and what it reveals of men's character), had proven to themselves that in direct confrontation they could thwart the British army, a force superior in training, equipment, and organization.

Following the beginning of the war at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775 the citizens of Boston found themselves between two armies. General Artemas Ward's New England volunteers surrounded Boston and blockaded the land approaches. General Thomas Gage and 4,600 British soldiers held the city itself. One Bostonian wrote, "We are besieged this moment with 10 or 15,000 men, from Roxbury to Cambridge... We are every hour expecting an attack by land or water."

Critical to the British occupation of Boston was control of the hills on the Charlestown peninsula. An army holding this position overlooked both Boston and her harbor. On June 15 the Americans learned that the British planned to occupy Charlestown. To frustrate them the Americans decided to act first.

On the evening of June 16, Colonel William Prescott, leading 1,200 Massachusetts and Connecticut soldiers, left Cambridge to fortify Bunker's Hill, the dominant hill in Charlestown. Prescott, however, bypassed this position and instead dug in on a lower hill closer to Boston called Breed's Hill. The next morning, the British awoke to find Breed's Hill fortified with an earthen redoubt measuring 160 feet by 30 feet. Gage ordered the position captured.



Major General William Howe, Gage's senior officer, was given field command. A shortage of boats, poor navigational maps, and ill-timed tides affected Howe's strategy and delayed the operation. In the end, Howe decided to land his troops at Moulton's (or Charlestown) Point near the mouth of the Mystic River. From her he could press westward across the peninsula, outflank the American redoubt and seize Bunker's Hill and Charlestown neck. While the British waited for the tide to rise, the Americans used the time wisely.

Prescott's men extended their fortifications to the north of the redoubt by building a breastwork. As Colonel Stark's new Hampshiremen arrived, they joined Connecticut troops fortifying a rail fence that extended down the slope of Breed's Hill toward the Mystic. Other soldiers constructed three shelters of fence rails, called fleches, in the exposed area between the breastwork and the rail fence. To cover Prescott's right flank, still other men took up snipers' positions in deserted Charlestown. In all, between 2,500 and 4,000 New Englanders manned the lines.

The First Assault

By 3:30 p.m. transports had delivered Howe's initial force, and reinforcements were landing on the shore between Moulton's Point and Charlestown. Whenn colonial snipers began firing at the arriving Redcoats, Howe ordered immediate retribution and the town was set afire by cannon. As Charlestown burned and spectators crowded to rooftops of Boston for the best view of the spectacle, Howe launched his first assault.



Howe's primary objective was the rail fence. As a diversion, Brigadier General Robert Pigot was to lead an assault on the redoubt and adjoining breastwork, while an elite group of light infantry would proceed up the Mystic shore to outflank the colonials on their left. Simultaneously, Howe and his principal force would hit defenders of the rail fence hard.

The advance of the Redcoats must have been a terrible sight to the Americans. But nervous as they were, they had to wait. It was critical that the first rounds of fire be coordinated, with men alternately firing and loading to keep up a barrage capable of breaking the enemy's charge. Whether or not they were told to hold fire until they saw the "whites of their eyes," the Colonials were told to wait for the order to fire, to aim low, and to pick off British officers.



Interrupting the advance of Howe's and Pigot's soldiers were fences and uneven terrain hidden by tall grass. Unhindered by such obstacles, the light infantry was able to move swiftly along the Mystic shore, only to be met by Colonel Stark's deadly surprise - a stone wall on the beach backed by soldiers who have no ground. On the meadow above, as Howe's men approached their enemy, they were met by premature but increasingly steady musketry. In the struggle to negotiate fences while under fire, momentum and discipline were lost. Pigot's attack on the redoubt, too, was repulsed. Prescott's men had held.

No sooner was the first assault turned back than Howe regrouped and marched forward again in a hasty, uncoordinated attack all along the American front. Once again the assault was a costly failure.

The British Victory

The colonials were jubilant, but not for long. Confusion, a lack of discipline, inter-colony rivalries, and the resulting lack of reinforcements and supplies were to take their toll. Howe had been frustrated but not defeated. It was true that British troops were no longer fresh or overconfident and had suffered devastating losses of both rank and file and officers. The officers that remained, however, roused their troops and put together for the final charge a group grimly determined.



This time the British drove against the right and center of the American line. They cut through the breastwork and overran the redoubt from three sides. Stark managed to hold on at the rail fence long enough to help cover Prescott's retreat, but the final scene inside the redoubt was carnage.

The surviving colonials retreated northward toward Cambridge. The British, bloodied and exhausted, pursued only as far as Bunker Hill and there dug in. By 5:30 p.m. the fighting was over.

Aftermath

Both armies had fought courageously and learned much. For the Redcoats, the lesson was painful. Although they had captured the hill, out of 2,200 soldiers engaged, 1,034 were casualties. The British attempted no further actions outside Boston for the next nine months. When Howe replaced Gage as military commander in America, the events of that day would continue to haunt him, and he would time and again fail to follow up a victory over the Americans.

The Americans had shown they could stand up to the British in traditional open field combat. But where they had succeeded, it had been through individual gallantry rather than tactical planning or discipline. Some regiments had fought well, other not at all. Of an estimated 2,500 to 4,000 men engaged, 400 to 600 were casualties. Stronger leadership would be critical to success in further battles. This leadership was provided on July 2, 1775 when George Washington arrived in Cambridge to assume his role as Commander-in-Chief of the new Continental Army.

[SAMWolf]

The Decisive Day Is Come

"The story of Bunker Hill battle," Allen French wrote, "is a tale of great blunders heroically redeemed." The first blunder was the decision of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety to fortify Charlestown heights and attempt to hold it against the British, cooped up in Boston after their withdrawal from Lexington and Concord. The ultimate aim was, in the abstract at least, sensible enough: to tighten the encirclement of Boston by commanding the heights both north and south of the town—Dorchester as well as Charlestown—and to deny those commanding hills to the British. But in fact the Americans did not have guns capable of reaching Boston effectively from Bunker Hill. And in addition, forces installed there were almost certain to be cut off since the British warships controlled Boston harbor and its confluence with the Charles River, and could easily keep the slim neck that joined Charlestown to the mainland under heavy fire. Nor, once committed, did the American commanders choose their ground wisely. The high point of the mile-long Charlestown peninsula was Bunker Hill—it rose 110 feet, and adjoined the only route of retreat, the roadway back to Cambridge. But the spot chosen for fortification was not Bunker Hill but Breed's Hill, only 75 feet high and 600 yards farther from the neck, controllable from the higher ground at its rear and isolated from the sole route of retreat. And even in the best positions the ill-equipped, altogether untrained troops of the New England army could hardly be expected to hold out against sustained attacks by British regulars led by no less that four general officers experienced in warfare on two continents.

That for two and a half hours of intense battle, greatly outnumbered, they did just that—held out until, their powder gone and forced to fight with gun butts and rocks, they were bayoneted out of the stifling, dust-choked redoubt they had thrown up on Breed's Hill—was the result not only of great personal heroism but also of the blunders of the British. In complete control of the sea, they could have landed troops on the north side of Charlestown neck and struck the rebels in the rear while sending their main force against them face-on. But in an excess of caution they chose instead to land at the tip and march straight up against the fortified American lines. Such strategy as they had was confined to sending a single column along the thin strip of beach on the north shore of Charlestown peninsula hoping to reach the rear of the entrenchments by land and thus begin an overland encirclement. But this effort was doomed from the start. A delay in beginning the attack gave the Americans time to throw a barrier across the beach and to place behind it a company of New Hampshire riflemen capable of stopping the encircling column. The British attack therefore was altogether a frontal one, two ranks moving on a front almost half-a-mile long toward the set battle line, a line formed on the Boston Bay side by the deserted houses of Charlestown, the redoubt on Breed's Hill, its breastwork extension and a fortified rail fence, and completed on the far beach by the New Hampshiremen and their barricade.

No one of the thousands who crowded the housetops, church steeples, and shore batteries of Boston to watch the spectacle ever forgot the extraordinary scene they witnessed. June 17, 1775, was an absolutely still, brilliantly clear summer's day. Viewers in Boston only half a mile away could make out the stages of the battle clearly. The first assault was begun by the column of light infantry on the far beach, the American left flank, and was followed by the cannonading of Charlestown on the right flank, which set the town in flames; then came the slow forward movement of the main battle line: two ranks of scarlet-clad grenadiers and light infantrymen, almost 2,000 in all, marching in full kit?? pounds of knapsacks, blankets, food, and ammunition—across irregular fields of knee-deep grass broken by fences and low stone walls. The American troops—no more than 1, 500 men at any time, at the end only half that—held their fire until the first British line was within 150 feet of the barricades; when they fired it was almost at point-blank range, and the result was slaughter. The British front line collapsed in heaps of dead and wounded—"as thick as sheep in a field." General Howe's entire staff was wiped out in the main attack against the rail fence. Great gaps appeared in the once parade-perfect ranks, and the survivors spun back.

But they were professional soldiers, led by experienced and determined officers with reputations to make. They quickly regrouped for the second attack, directed now squarely at the redoubt and breastwork. Again the Americans withheld fire until the last moment, and again when it came it tore the line of upright marching men to shreds: "an incessant stream of fire poured from the rebel lines," a British officer wrote, "it seemed a continued sheet of fire for near thirty minutes." The forward units fell back against the second line moving up, then turned and fled back down the hill. Some of Howe's remaining officers begged him then to break off the attack and review the situation. Instead, he called for reinforcements, ordered his troops to throw off their heavy equipment, stationed his artillery where it could rake the whole American line, and called for a third assault—a bayonet charge against the central barricades. Again the advancing line was thrown back by the defenders' fire, and again great gaps were torn in the marching ranks. But this time the fire was less intense and it could not be sustained. The 700 exhausted defenders had been sent no reinforcements; they had no supplies except what they had carried with them the night before. As the third charge neared the line of fortification their powder ran out, and though they fought desperately with everything they could lay hands on, they could no longer force the British back. Grenadiers and light infantrymen poured over the parapets and through the thin barricades, and dove into groups of defenders. The Americans turned and fled up over and around Bunker Hill to the roads that led to safety. So the battle came to an end.

Heroes on both sides redeemed, perhaps, the blunders. The American hero was above all William Prescott, in command in the redoubt, whose nerve held throughout, who steeled the small band of armed farmers, and somehow made them into an effective fighting force. Miraculously, he survived, though Joseph Warren—physician, orator, liberal spokesman, writer, who had been appointed major general but who chose to fight as a private soldier in the redoubt—was killed in the final charge. A half dozen others—John Stark, Henry Dearborn, Seth Pomeroy, and Andrew McClary—would be remembered for their valor and leadership. And the commanding officer throughout the engagement, the venerable Israel Putnam, though his original battle plan had been ill-conceived, though he failed to resupply or reinforce the defenders at the barricades, though indeed he was unable to induce the hundreds of men who watched the action from Bunker Hill and from the roadways a mere 1,000 yards from the battle to come to the aid of the defenders—"Old Put" too would be honored in the end.

For generals William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne the battle was an introduction to years of frustration and defeat in the American war. Howe's personal courage had been clearly demonstrated but so too had his excessive caution, his inflexible commitment to formal battle tactics, and his entire lack of a killer instinct, which would have impelled him forward to overtake the fleeing Americans and to assault the weakly held American headquarters in Cambridge. Clinton too, hastily mobilizing reinforcements and charging with them in the third assault, had shown decision and courage, and his initial proposals for encircling the peninsula by sea had been the soundest strategy of the day. But his voice was not decisive, and his role was secondary throughout. As for Burgoyne, playwright, politician, man of style and spirit—"Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne had watched the battle from the Boston battery and wrote descriptions of it, memorable in themselves, that suggest something of the mentality that would account for the strategy and failure of Saratoga.

Half of the British forces had been casualties; perhaps a third of the 1,500 Americans engaged had been killed, wounded, or captured. What did the battle prove? It proved that raw, untrained American troops could fight, and fight well—but only if they had to; that success would come to the British only if they responded flexibly and imaginatively to the unorthodox demands of warfare in colonial territories 3,000 miles from home; and finally, that if the still disunited, still legally British states of America were to fight with any hope of success a continental war against the greatest military power on earth, a leader of great personal force and of great military and political skill would have to be forthcoming.

Memorials of the battle abound. Among the most vivid are the documents on display in the library of the Massachusetts Historical Society (through September 2000) and reproduced here in the Society's first "on-line" exhibition. Abigail Adams's letter to her husband John conveys the feelings and observations of an eyewitness. The letter of Peter Brown, a private soldier "hearty in the cause" who fought with Prescott in the redoubt, is the fullest description that survives of a participant in the ranks. The engraved "views" and maps of the battle and of Warren's death convey not so much the objective historical actuality as the contemporary sense of it. They also show the drift of images of the battle into popular iconography. Published reports and accounts show the use of the battle in what a later generation would call propaganda.

Bernard Bailyn

[SAMWolf]

Bunker Hill Monument

"Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes!" This legendary order has come to symbolize the conviction and determination of the ill-equipped American colonists facing powerful British forces during the famous battle fought on this site on June 17, 1775. The battle is popularly known as "The Battle of Bunker Hill" although most of the fighting actually took place on Breed's Hill, the site of the existing monument and exhibit lodge. Today, a 221-foot granite obelisk marks the site of the first major battle of the American Revolution.



The Battle of Bunker Hill pitted a newly-formed and inexperienced colonial army against the more highly trained and better-equipped British. Despite the colonial army's shortcomings, it was led by such capable men as Colonel William Prescott, Colonel John Stark and General Israel Putnam, who had experience fighting alongside the British in the French and Indian War. Although the British Army ultimately prevailed in the battle, the colonists greatly surprised the British by repelling two major assaults and inflicting great casualties. Out of the 2,200 British ground forces and artillery engaged at the battle, almost half (1,034) were counted afterwards as casualties (both killed and wounded). The colonists lost between 400 and 600 combined casualties, including popular patriot leader and newly-elected Major-General Dr. Joseph Warren, who was killed during the third and final assault.

The first monument on the site was an 18-foot wooden pillar with a gilt urn erected in 1794 by King Solomon's Lodge of Masons to honor fallen patriot and mason, Dr. Joseph Warren. In 1823, a group of prominent citizens formed the Bunker Hill Monument Association to construct a more permanent and significant monument to commemorate the famous battle. The existing monument was finally completed in 1842 and dedicated on June 17, 1843, in a major national ceremony. The exhibit lodge was built in the late nineteenth century to house a statue of Dr. Warren.

[SAMWolf]

'Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes'

-- Colonel William Prescott

[SAMWolf]

Thanks, Doughty!

[SAMWolf]

Good Morning Everybody.

Hurry Back Fiddlstix!
No one makes Coffee and Donuts like you.

You Know The Drill
Click the Pics

[SAMWolf]

[CholeraJoe]

A less well-known command given at this battle was, "Aim for the gorgets." The gorget was an ornate plate worn by British officers.

[SAMWolf]

I learn something new everyday. Thanks,CholeraJoe.

[SAMWolf]

Good Morning Cote.

Is there any topic that you can't find a poem for?

[facedown]

"Don't fire until you can see the whites of their eyes."

Colonel William Prescott

[SAMWolf]

I don't miss those temperatures at all!

[CholeraJoe]

I had nothing to do with it.

HELENA, MT
Currently at 6:48 AM
CLOUDY Calm.
Temp: 38° F / RF 42° F. RF Shade: 42° F.
UV Index 0. Sunrise/Sunset

[SAMWolf]

Good Painting facedown, How'd I miss that one?

[CholeraJoe]

Shortly thereafter, British officers ceased wearing gorgets.

[SAMWolf]

Tough but not impossible, right

[Valin]

On This Day In History


Birthdates which occurred on January 28:
1457 Henry VII Pembroke Castle, 1st Tudor king of England (1485-1509)
1578 Cornelis Haga Dutch lawyer/ambassador to Constantinople (1611-39)
1582 John Barclay Scottish satirist/poet (Euphormio's Satyricon, Argenis)
1600 Clement IX [Giulio Rospigliosi], Pistoia, Italy, 238th pope (1667-69)
1608 Giovanni Alfonso Borelli Naples Italy, mathematician/astronomer/physiologist
1611 Johannes Hevelius Danzig, astronomer (star cataloger)
1627 Alfonso Marsh composer
1645 Gottfried Vopelius composer
1688 Jan Maurits Quinkhard Dutch portrait painter
1691 Johann Balthasar Konig composer
1693 Anna "Ivanovna" tsarina of Russia (1730-40)
1693 Gregor Joseph Werner composer
1702 Hermanus Noordkerk Dutch lawyer
1706 John Baskerville English printer (typeface inventor)
1714 Jean-Baptiste Pigalle French sculptor (Child with Pigeon)
1717 Mustapha III Sultan of Turkey (1757-74)
1722 Johann Ernst Bach composer
1756 Hans Adolf Friedrich von Eschstruth composer
1757 Antonio Bartolomeo Bruni composer
1768 Frederick VI Danish king (1808-39); lost Norway to Sweden (1814)
1784 George HG Earl of Aberdeen English Secretary of State
1791 Louis-J-Ferdinand Hérold France, opera composer (Zampa)
1815 Andrew Jackson Hamilton Brigadier General (Union volunteers), died in 1875
1818 George Sewall Boutwell MC (Union), died in 1905
1822 Alexander MacKenzie (L) 2nd PM of Canada (1873-78)
1825 George Edward Pickett Major General (Confederate Army), died in 1875
1828 Michel Abeloos Flemish sculptor
1828 Thomas Carmichael Hindman Major General (Confederate Army), died in 1868
1831 Henry Brevard Davidson Brigadier General (Confederate Army), died in 1899
1832 Franz Wullner composer
1833 Charles George Gordon London England, military hero/general (China, Khartoum)
1840 Édouard Vaillant French socialist politician/communard
1841 Henry Stanley England, journalist/explorer (found Livingston in Africa)
1841 Viktor Ernst Nessler composer
1853 José Martí y Perez Cuba, poet/essayist/politician
1855 William Seward Burroughs New York, inventor (recording adding machine)
1865 Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg 1st President of Finland (1919-25)
1868 Frederick Archibald Lamond composer
1868 Julian Aguirre composer
1869 Ozaki Kôyô Japan, novelist/essayist/haiku poet (The Heart)
1873 "Sidonie Gabrielle" Colette Burgundy France, novelist (Cheri, Gigi)
1873 M A Noble cricketer (great Australian all-rounder at turn of century)
1874 Ernst Rabel Austrian/US law historian (Grundzüge)
1875 Julian Antonio Carillo-Trujillo composer
1878 Walter Kollo [Kollodziepski] German composer (Der Juxbaron)
1880 Herbert Strudwick cricketer (England wicket-keeper before & after WWI)
1880 Mary Boland Philadelphia PA, US, comedienne/actress (Ruggles of Red Gap)
1884 Auguste Piccard Switzerland, scientist/explorer (balloonist)
1884 Lucien H d'Azambuja France, astronomer (chromosphere of sun)
1886 Artur Rubinstein Lódz Poland, pianist
1887 Lily Theresa Strickland composer
1891 Camille Melloy [Paepe], Belgian poet (Parfum des Buis)
1891 Karel Boleslav Jirak composer
1892 Ernst Lubitsch Germany, actor (Love Parade)
1893 Elliot Griffis composer
1897 Valentin Katayev Odessa Ukraine, novelist/playwright (Embezzled)
1898 Vittorio Rieti composer
1898 Wies Moens Flemish writer/nazi
1899 Zilner T Randolph jazz trumpeter/arranger
1900 Anni Holdmann Germany, 100m runner (Olympics-1928)
1900 Alexandre AM Stols [Chl van Halsbeke] publisher (History of Ecuador)
1900 Hermann Kesten German writer (Allert de Lange)
1900 Michael Dewar Head composer
1903 Dame Kathleen Lonsdale crystallographer (1st woman in Royal Society)
1905 Gaston Rébry Flemish cyclist
1906 Allan Walker actor/writer (Red Buttons Show)
1906 Harry van Kruiningen [Henri A Janssen], painter/graphic artist
1906 Henry Foley cricketer (batted in New Zealand's 1st Test 1930)
1907 Constantin Regamey composer
1908 Hans [Hendrik AJ] Tiemeijer Dutch actor/director/writer (Fear)
1909 Lionel KP "Buster" Crabb British diver (WWII-George Medal)
1910 Arnold Moss Brooklyn NY, actor (Loves of Carmen, Kim, Québec, Viva Zapata)
1910 John Banner Vienna Austria, actor (Sergeant Hans Schultz-Hogan's Heroes)
1912 Jackson Pollock Cody WY, abstract artist (Lavender Mist)
1912 William "Bill" Henson English diplomat (Prague 1939)
1913 Jan Masseus composer
1913 Oliver Chesterton chartered surveyor
1916 Peter Crossley-Holland composer
1918 Vito Scotti San Francisco CA, actor (Flying Nun, Barefoot in the Park)
1918 Wilson Ferreira Aldunate Uruguayan politician/human rights worker
1918 Harry M Corbett Bradford, puppeteer/entertainer (Sooty, Some People)
1918 Suzanne Flon Paris France, actress (One Deadly Summer, Moulin Rouge)
1918 Trevor Skeet British MP
1920 James Whyte Moderator (General Assembly of Church of Scotland)
1921 Alfred Marks actor/comedian (Desert Mice, Scream & Scream Again)
1922 Robert W Holley US, biochemist, worked with RNA (Nobel '68)
1924 Frank R Lautenberg (Senator-D-NJ)
1925 Henry Harris British professor of medicine
1927 Anthony Garner director (Conservative Central Office)
1927 J D Hughes Principal (Ruskin College-Oxford)
1927 James Callaghan British MP
1927 Ronnie Scott jazz musician/club-owner
1928 Martin Sinnatt Major-General/Secretary (Kennel Club)
1928 MG Falcon CEO (Norwich Union Insurance Group)
1928 Slade Gorton (Senator-R-WA, 1981- )
1929 Acker Bilk clarinetist (Stranger on the Shore)
1929 Claes Oldenburg Stockholm Sweden, US pop artist (Happenings, Alphabet/Good Humor)
1929 Richard Clement Charles Thomas rugby international/journalist
1930 David Morris British MEP
1930 Luis de Pablo composer
1931 Timothy Kitson former MP
1932 David Thompson CEO (Gestetner Holdings)
1932 Thomas J Bliley Jr (Representative-R-VA, 1981- )
1932 W Parry O'Brien California, shot putter (Olympics-2 gold/silver-52, 56, 60, 64)
1932 Windlesham Lord
1933 Susan Sontag New York City NY, essayist/novelist/film director (The Benefactor, 1966 Pol Award)
1934 B R White principal (Regent's Park College-Oxford)
1934 Bill White US, 1st baseman (Cards)/announcer (Yanks)/president (NL)
1935 David John Lodge English writer (Soul & Bodies)
1935 Leonid Grabovsky composer
1935 Manuel dos Santos Lima Angolian revolutionary/poet (Pele do Diabo)
1935 Nicholas Pryor actor (Beverly Hills 90210)
1936 Alan Alda [Alphonso D'Abruzzo], New York City NY, actor (Hawkeye Pierce-M*AS*H)
1936 Bill Jordan British trade unionist
1936 Enid Castle principal (Cheltenham Ladies' College)
1936 Jack Scott vocalist (My True Love)
1936 Robert Suderburg composer
1937 Ken Hill playwright/director
1939 John M Fabian Goosecreek TX, Colonel USAF/astronaut (STS 7, STS 51G)
1941 Joel Crothers Cincinnati OH, actor (Dr Miles Cavanaugh-Edge of Night, Dark Shadows)
1942 Hansdjürgen Bäumler Germany, pairs ice skater (Olympics-silver-1968)
1943 Dick Taylor rock vocalist (Pretty Thing-Cry to Me)
1943 John Beck Chic, actor (Mark-Dallas, Flamingo Road, Santa Barbara)
1943 Susan Howard Marshall TX, actress (Donna-Dallas, Petrocelli)
1943 Jean Knight rocker
1944 Martin Fried rocker (Cyrkle-Red Rubber Ball)
1944 Arnold Mühren Dutch pop bassist/singer (The Cats-Sailin' Home)
1944 Brian Keenan New York City NY, rock drummer (Chamber Brothers-Time Has Come Today)
1944 James Cran British MP
1944 John Edmonds British trade unionist
1944 John Tavener composer (The Whale)
1945 Nick Raynsford British MP
1946 Renne Jarrett Brooklyn NY, actress (Nancy)
1946 Rick Allen Arkansas, rock bassist (Box Tops-Letter)
1947 MJ Ainsworth CEO (Institute of Chartered Secretaries)
1947 Valerie Bragg principal (City Technology College-Kingshurst)
1948 Gareth Roscoe legal adviser (BBC)
1948 Mamoru Mohri Yoichi-machi Hokkaido Japan, astronaut (STS 47)
1949 Thomas J Downey (Representative-D-NY, 1975- )
1950 Barbi Benton [Klein], California, Playboy model/actress (Hee Haw, Sugar Time!)
1950 David Carl Hilmer Iowa, Colonel USMC/astronaut (STS 51-J, 26, 36, 42)
1950 Glyn Ford British MEP
1951 Gordon Prentice British MP
1951 Leonid Konstantinovich Kadenyuk Kkishkov Ukraine, astronaut (STS 87)
1951 Susan Buckner Seattle WA, actress (George-Hardy Boys)
1951 William Nelson Jr US bassist (Connections & Disconnections)
1953 Debbie Steinbach LPGA golfer
1953 Michael Day rocker
1954 Anicee Alvina Paris France, actress (Friends)
1954 Shawn Murray rock drummer (Mink Deville)
1956 Peter Schilling Stuttgart Germany, rocker (Major Tom-Coming Home)
1957 Harley Jane Kozak actress (Arachnophobia, Necessary Roughness)
1957 Nick Price Durban South Africa, PGA golfer (1991 Byron Nelson Classic)
1959 Dave Sharp rock guitarist (Alarm-In the Summertime)
1960 John Caliri Providence RI, actor (Vinnie-Square Pegs, Double Trouble)
1961 Luann L Lee Santa Monica CA, playmate (Jan, 1987)
1962 Keith Hamilton Cobb Tarrytown NY, actor (Noah Keefer-All My Children)
1962 Michael Cage NBA forward/center (Cleveland Cavaliers, New Jersey Nets)
1962 Sam Phillips singer/actress (Die Hard with a Vengeance)
1963 Danny Spitz heavy metal guitarist (Anthrax-Protest & Survive)
1963 Colleen Harp Washington DC, WPVA volleyballer (US Open-9th-1994)
1963 Denise Beillmann Switzerland, figure skater (Olympics-4th-1980)
1964 Dwight Stone NFL receiver/running back (Carolina Panthers, Green Bay Packers)
1964 Emlyn Aubrey PGA golfer (1995 Nestles-25th)
1966 Jeff Uhlenhake NFL center (New Orleans Saints, Washington Redskins)
1966 Michal Pivonka Kladno Czechoslovakia, NHL center (Washington Capitals)
1967 Peter Hofstede Dutch soccer player (Roda JC, FC Utrecht)
1967 Tom Hodson NFL quarterback (New Orleans Saints)
1968 Henry Hering Pointe-Claire Québec Canada, rower (Olympics-9-92, 96)
1968 Marnie McBean Vancouver BC, rower (Olympics-gold-92, 96)
1968 Sarah McLachlan folk singer (Fumbling Towards Ecstasy)
1969 Giorgio Lamberti Italian free style swimmer (world record 200m)
1969 John Veenhof Dutch soccer player (FC Groningen)
1970 Barry Minter NFL middle linebacker (Chicago Bears)
1970 Donald Tardy US, death metal drummer (Obituary, Cause of Death)
1970 James Atkins NFL tackle (Seattle Seahawks)
1970 Mike Chalenski NFL defensive tackle (Philadelphia Eagles)
1972 Carey Bender NFL running back (Buffalo Bills)
1972 Elena Baranova WNBA center (Utah Starzz)
1972 Frank Garcia NFL center (Green Bay Packers, Carolina Panthers)
1973 Bronwyn Thompson Australian rower (Olympics-96)
1973 Jerome Allen NBA guard (Minnesota Timberwolves)
1973 Joe Stephens NBA forward (Houston Rockets)
1973 Robert Braknis Montréal Québec Canada, 100m backstroke/4 x 100 (Olympics-96)
1974 Derrick Mayes NFL wide receiver (Green Bay Packers-Super Bowl XXXI)
1974 Jermaine Dye Oakland CA, outfielder (Atlanta Braves)
1974 Tony Delk NBA guard (San Francisco Warriors)
1974 Vitaly Tregubov hockey defenseman (Team Kazakhstan Olympics-1998)
1974 Zack Bronson safety (San Francisco 49ers)
1975 Anne Montminy Montréal Québec Canada, 10m diver (Olympics-17-92, 96)
1975 Julian Dean Waihi New Zealand, team pursuit cyclist (Olympics-96)
1978 Helga Bauer Salas Miss Bolivia-Universe (1997)
1980 Nick Carter singer (Backstreet Boys)
1981 Elijah Wood Cedar Rapids IA, actor (Radio Flyer, Good Son)
1985 Athina Onassis daughter of Christina

---

Deaths which occurred on January 28:
0814 Charlemagne German emperor/Roman Emperor (800-814), dies at 71
1119 Gelasius II [Giovannis Caetani], pope (1118-19), dies
1256 Willem II Earl of Holland/German emperor (1238, 47-56), dies at 22
1393 Earl of Joigny burned at royal ball
1528 Philips of Cleve ruler of Ravenstein, dies
1547 Henry VIII King of England (1509-47), dies at 55
1549 Elia Levita German-Yiddish writer (Habachur), dies at about 80
1560 John a Lasco [John Laski], Polish nobleman/reformed theologist, dies
1595 Sir Francis Drake English navigator/pirate (Porto Bello West Indies), dies at about 50
1606 Carolus Gallus [Karel de Haan], Dutch lawyer/pastor/vicar, dies at 85
1612 Thomas Bodley diplomat/founder (Bodleian Library), dies
1621 Paulus V [Camillo Borghese], 233rd pope (1605-21), dies at 68
1687 Johannes Hevelius astronomer (star cataloger), dies on 76th birthday
1725 Peter I "the Great" Romanov czar of Russia, dies at 52
1754 Ludvig Holberg Danish lawyer/writer (Hendrig og Pernille), dies at 69
1768 John Wainwright composer, dies at 44
1782 Jean-Baptiste-Bourguignon d'Anville French geographer, dies at 84
1805 Mihály Csokonai Vitéz Hungarian (stage)poet (Dorottya), dies at 31
1810 Andrew Hofer Tyrolian rebel against French & Bavarians, shot dead
1813 Jan Joseph Rosler composer, dies at 41
1817 Friedrich Ludwig Emilius Kunzen composer, dies at 55
1829 William Burke murderer/body snatcher, executed in Edinburgh
1838 Aleksandr I Polezjajev Russian poet (Sasjka), dies at 33
1868 Adalbert Stifter Austrian author (Witiko), commits suicide at 62
1869 Prudent-Louis Aubery du Boulley composer, dies at 72
1873 Henry Hugo Pierson composer, dies at 57
1895 François Certain de Canrobert French marshal, dies at 85
1896 Joseph Barnby composer, dies at 57
1898 Alexandru Flechtenmacher composer, dies at 74
1903 Augusta Mary Anne Holmes composer, dies at 55
1903 Jean Robert Planquette composer, dies at 54
1910 Jose Garcia Robles composer, dies at 74
1918 John McCrae Canadian poet/physician, dies
1924 Simon Abramsz Dutch writer (Artist book), dies at 56
1930 Clarence Skelton Wimble cricket (score pair in Test for South Africa), dies
1932 Franz Xavier Arens composer, dies at 75
1933 Theodor Birt [Beatus Rhenanus] German classicist/writer, dies at 80
1935 Mikhail Mikhaylovich Ippolitov-Ivanov Russian composer, dies at 75
1938 Bernd Rosemeyer German race car driver, dies at 28
1938 John Sharp cricketer (England bat 1909, also soccer international), dies
1939 William Butler Yeats Irish poet (Nobel), dies in France at 73
1942 Pablo Luna y Carne composer, dies at 61
1945 Philip "Felix" Bekkers actor (We Go on Trip), dies at 37
1947 Reynaldo Hahn composer, dies at 72
1949 Gustaf Lazarus Nordqvist composer, dies at 62
1957 Fred Stein TV panelist (Live Begins at 80), dies at 88
1959 Joseph Sprinzak Speaker of Israel Knesset (1949-59), dies at 73
1959 Viktor Joseph Keldorfer composer, dies at 85
1960 Jacques de Menasce composer, dies at 54
1963 Jean Felix Piccard swiss explorer, dies on his 79th birthday
1965 Jef van Durme composer, dies at 57
1965 Johan Fiolet Dutch actor/director, dies at 63
1965 Tich Freeman cricket (3776 FC wickets leg-spin, 304 in 1928), dies
1967 Stanley Coen cricket (2 Tests for South Africa, hs 41 not out, avg 50), dies
1970 Tommy Andrews (Australia) 16 Tests 1921-26 cricketer (592 runs), dies
1972 Adriaan B "Jaap" Wagemaker Dutch sculptor, dies at 66
1973 John Banner actor (Schultz-Hogan's Heroes), dies on 62nd birthday
1974 Dino Buzzati writer, dies at 67
1975 Antonin Novótny Czechoslovakian President (1957-68), dies at 70
1976 Chris Kenner rocker (I Like it Like That), dies
1977 Burt Mustin actor (All in the Family, Andy Griffith Show), dies at 92
1980 Jimmy Durante New York City NY, comedian (Jimmy Durante Show), dies at 86
1983 Billy Fury actor (That'll Be the Day), dies at 42 of heart failure
1984 John Macvane newscaster (United or Not), dies at 71
1986 Christa McAuliffe astronaut/teacher, dies in Challenger disaster
1986 Ellison S Onizuka Hawaii, Major USAF/astronaut, dies in Challenger disaster
1986 Francis R Scobee Washington, USAF/astronaut, dies in Challenger disaster
1986 Gregory B. Jarvis Detroit Michigan, payload specialist/astronaut, dies in Challenger disaster
1986 Dr Judith Arlene Resnik Akron OH, astronaut, dies in Challenger disaster
1986 Michael J Smith Beaufort NC, Commander USN, astronaut, dies in Challenger
1986 Ronald E McNair Lake City SC, astronaut, dies in Challenger disaster
1991 Dale Long hit HRs in 8 consecutive games, dies at 66
1992 Clark Tippet dancer/choreographer, dies at 37
1992 Nahman Avigad Israeli archaeologist (Discovering Jerusalem), dies at 86
1993 Aben Kandel screenwriter (Dinner at 8), dies of heart failure at 96
1993 John Steadman actor (Gator, Fade to Black), dies of lung ailment 83
1994 Hal Smith actor (Otis Campbell-Andy Griffith Show), dies at 77
1994 Hermanus P "Piet" Mulder Dutch journalist (Het Parool), dies at 79
1994 William Levitt builder (Levittown), dies of kidney failure at 86
1995 Barrie Wilson academic, dies at 59
1995 George Woodcock author, dies at 82
1995 James P Grant US director of UNICEF (1980-95), dies at 72
1995 Jim Gilbert artist, dies at 61
1995 Philip H Burton Welsh producer/Richard Burton's teacher, dies at 80
1995 Walter Ernest Allen writer/critic, dies at 83
1996 Burne Hogarth strip-cartoon artist, dies at 84
1996 Dan Duva boxing promoter, dies at 44
1996 Jerry Siegel comic book writer (Superman), dies at 81
1996 John Mosely recording expert/entrepreneur, dies at 81
1996 Joseph Brodsky poet, dies at 55
1996 U San Yu soldier/politician, President of Burma in (1981-88), dies at 77
1996 Victor "Toby" Neuberg teacher/writer, dies at 71
1997 James Colin Ross Welch journalist, dies at 72
1997 Pietro Cavallero bandit, dies at 68
1997 Vivien Signy nurse, dies at 80

---

On this day...
1077 Pope Gregory VII pardons German emperor Heinrich IV
1099 1st Crusaders begins siege of Hosn-el-Akrad Syria
1262 Flemish/Dutch coast ravaged by north western storm
1393 Fire during Royal Ball at Paris, 4 die (Ball of the Ardents)
1495 Pope gives his son Cesare Borgia as hostage to Charles VIII of France
1547 9-year-old Edward VI succeeds Henry VIII as king of England
1561 By Edict of Orleans persecution of French Huguenots is suspended
1581 James VI signs the 2nd Confession of Faith in Scotland
1613 Galileo may have unknowingly viewed undiscovered planet Neptune
1689 English parliament ends king Charles II reign
1787 Philadelphia's Free Africa Society organizes
1788 Lord Gordon found guilty of libel of queen of France
1807 London's Pall Mall is 1st street lit by gaslight
1814 Stendahl's 1st book is published
1819 Sir Stamford Raffles 1st lands in Singapore
1821 Bellingshausen discovers Alexander Island off Antarctica
1824 William Kneass becomes 3rd US chief engraver (1824-40)
1830 The opera "Fra Diavolo" is produced (Paris)
1846 Battle of Allwal, Brits beat Sikhs in Punjab (India)
1848 King of Naples grants his subjects a constitution
1851 Northwestern University (Chicago) chartered
1858 John Brown organized raid on Arsenal at Harper's Ferry
1860 Britain formally returns Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua
1864 Battle of New Bern, NC
1865 President Jefferson Davis names 3 peace commissioners
1871 Paris surrenders to Prussians
1878 1st telephone exchange (New Haven CT)
1878 George W Coy hired as 1st full-time telephone operator
1878 Yale Daily News published, 1st college daily newspaper
1881 Battle at Laing's Neck Natal Boers beat superior powered British
1887 England all out for 45 vs Australia SCG, their lowest total ever
1893 Edward Mcdowell's "Hamlet & Ophelia" premieres in Boston
1899 American Social Science Association incorporated by Congress
1902 Carnegie Institute founded in Washington DC
1904 1st college sports letters given to Seniors who played on University of Chicago's football team are awarded blankets with letter "C" on them
1909 US military forces leave Cuba for 2nd time
1911 Frenchman Henri Rougier wins 1st Rally of Monte Carlo
1914 1st Millrose Games (athletics) held (New York City NY)
1914 Beverly Hills, California, is incorporated
1915 1st US ship lost in WWI, William P Frye (carrying wheat to UK)
1915 US Coast Guard created from Life Saving & Revenue Cutter services
1915 US President Wilson refuses to prohibit immigration of illiterates
1916 1st Jewish Supreme Court justice, Louis Brandeis, nominated
1916 The opera "Goyescas" is 1st performed (New York City NY)
1916 German colony of Cameroon surrenders to Britain & France
1918 Strike on Berlin ammunitions factory
1918 Trotsky becomes leader of Reds
1922 American Pro Football Association renamed "National Football League"
1922 J E Clair turns Green Bay franchise back to NFL
1923 1st "Reichs Party" (NSDAP) forms in Munich
1923 Demonstration against a Dutch University in Ghent
1923 NSDAP 1st election in Munich
1925 -46ºF (-43ºC), Pittsburgh NH (state record)
1927 Serbian-Croatian-Slavic government of Oezonowitsj falls
1928 Christopher Hornsrud chosen PM of Norway at age 101
1931 Bradman scores 220 New South Wales vs Victoria, 308 minutes, 13 fours
1932 1st US state unemployment insurance act enacted-Wisconsin
1932 Japan occupies Shanghai
1933 French government of Paul Boncour falls
1933 German government of Von Schleicher falls
1934 1st US ski tow (rope) begins operation (Woodstock VT)
1935 Iceland becomes 1st country to legalize abortion
1936 Pravda criticizes Shostakovich's "Lady Macbeth" opera
1942 General Timoshenko's troops move into Ukraine
1942 German troops occupy Benghazi Libya
1943 Forward Doug Bentley sets NHL record with 5 points in a game
1943 Chicago Blackhawks beats New York Rangers 10-1, Max Bentley scores 4 goals
1944 683 British bombers attack Berlin
1944 Leonard Bernstein's "Jeremiah" premieres in Pittsburgh
1944 U-271 & U-571 sunk off Ireland
1945 General "Vinegar Joe" Stillwell & truck convoy reopen Burma Road to China
1945 Dutch airplanes dump pamphlets on Java
1945 Swedish ships bring food to starving Netherlands
1947 "Bay Psalm" book auctioned for a record $151,000
1949 New York Giants sign their 1st black players, Monte Irvin & Ford Smith
1949 UN Security council condemns Dutch aggression in Indonesia
1950 Preston Tucker, auto maker, found not guilty of mail fraud
1951 "La Vie Commence Demain", which depicted artificial insemination & is the 1st X-rated movie, opened in London
1951 US performs nuclear test at Nevada Test Site
1953 J Fred Muggs (the chimp) joins NBC's "Today Show"
1953 WJTV TV channel 12 in Jackson, MS (CBS) begins broadcasting
1956 Elvis Presley's 1st TV appearance (Dorsey Brothers Stage Show)
1957 "Tonight! America After Dark" premieres, with Jack Lescoulie & Al (Jazzbo) Collins on NBC (between Steve Allen & Jack Paar)
1958 Construction began on 1st private thorium-uranium nuclear reactor
1958 Dodger catcher Roy Campanella is paralyzed in an automobile wreck
1959 Soviet Union wins 62-37 for 1st international basketball loss by US
1960 1st photograph bounced off Moon, Washington DC
1960 NFL announces Dallas Cowboys (1960) & Minnesota Vikings (1961) franchises
1960 Goon Show's final episode on BBC
1961 Republic of Rwanda proclaimed
1962 Johanne Relleke gets stung by bees 2,443 times in Rhodesia & survives
1963 -34ºF (-37ºC), Cynthiana KY (state record)
1965 The Who make their 1st appearance on British TV
1967 Rolling Stones release "Let's Spend the Night Together"
1968 29th PGA Seniors Golf Championship Chandler Harper
1968 Goose Goslin & Kiki Cuyler elected to baseball Hall of Fame
1969 Barbara Jo Rubin becomes 1st woman jockey to win in North America
1969 2nd ABA All-Star Game West 133 beats East 127 at Louisville
1970 Lubomír Strougal succeeds Cernik as premier of Czechoslovakia
1972 Oral Roberts' Eddie Woods grabs 30 rebounds for 2nd consecutive game
1973 "Barnaby Jones" premieres on CBS TV
1973 Henry Boucha, Detroit Red Wings, scores 6 seconds into a game vs Montréal
1973 Ron Howard appears on M*AS*H in "Sometimes You Hear the Bullet"
1973 Mickey Welch, George Kelly & Billy Evans elected to Hall of Fame
1974 Sam Thompson, Jim Bottomley, & Jocko Conlan elected to Hall of Fame
1975 8th ABA All-Star Game East 151 beats West 124 at San Antonio
1976 NBA Atlanta Hawks begin a 28 game road losing streak
1976 Erapalli Prasanna takes 8-76 to rip through New Zealand at Eden Park
1978 "Fantasy Island" starring Ricardo Montalban premieres on ABC TV
1978 Ranger's Don Murdoch failed on 4th penalty shot against Islanders
1978 Ted Nugent autographs a fan's arm with his knife
1979 "Wiz" closes at Majestic Theater New York City NY after 1672 performances
1979 Arthur Kopit's "Wings" premieres in New York City NY
1980 37th Golden Globes Dustin Hoffman & Sally Field wins
1981 Olympic Glory tanker at Galveston Bay, Texas, spills 1 million gallons of oil in a ship collision
1981 "5 O'Clock Girl" opens at Helen Hayes Theater New York City NY for 12 performances
1981 William J Casey becomes the 13th director of CIA (until 1987)
1982 US General Dozier freed from Red Brigade of Padua Italy
1982 US performs nuclear test at Nevada Test Site
1984 Los Angeles Kings stop Wayne Gretsky 51 game scoring streak
1984 Mr Glynn Wolfe marries for non-bigamous record 26th time, Las Vegas NV
1984 Record 295,000 dominoes toppled, Fuerth, West Germany
1984 41th Golden Globes Thornbirds wins
1985 12th American Music Award
1986 25th Space Shuttle (51L)-Challenger 10 explodes 73 seconds after liftoff
1986 "Uptown... It's Hot!" opens at Lunt-Fontanne Theater New York City NY for 24 performances
1986 Angolan Unity Leader Jonas Savimbi visits Washington, DC
1987 US Foreign minister George Shultz meets ANC-leader Oliver Tambo
1987 Wrestler Jim Neidhart indicted for assaulting a flight attendant
1988 "Saratina!" opens at Cort Theater New York City NY for 597 performances
1988 Canada's Supreme court declares anti-abortion law unconstitutional
1989 46th Golden Globes Rain Man, Working Girl
1989 63rd Australian Open Women's Tennis Steffi Graf beats Helena Sukova (64 64)
1989 Boon completes 7th Test century, 149 vs West Indies at SCG
1990 East German agreement to form all-party government
1990 "Independent on Sunday" begins publishing in London
1990 78th Australian Men's Tennis Ivan Lendl beats Stefan Edberg (46 76 52-ret)
1990 Super Bowl XXIV San Francisco 49ers beat Denver Broncos, 55-10 in New Orleans; Super Bowl MVP Joe Montana, San Francisco, Quarterback
1991 "A Closer Look" with Faith Daniels premieres on NBC-TV
1991 18th American Music Award M C Hammer & Janet Jackson
1991 Boon completes 9th Test century, 121 vs England at Adelaide
1991 Dictator Siad Barre flees Somalia ending 22 year rule
1992 Boon completes 12th Test century, 135 vs India at Adelaide
1992 Stan Hansen beats Jumbo Tsuruta to win All Japan Triple Crown
1994 Actress Lorraine Bracco (39) weds actor Edward James Olmos (46)
1994 Helicopter crashes into office building in San Jose CA, 1 dead
1994 Inna Lassovskaja jumps ladies world record (14.78m)
1995 69th Australian Open Women's Tennis Mary Pierce beats Arantxa Sanchez Vicario (63 62)
1995 83rd Australian Open Men's Tennis Andre Agassi beats Pete Sampras (46 61 76 64)
1995 Memphis Mad Dogs granted CFL's 13th franchise
1996 "Hello Dolly!" closes at Lunt-Fontanne Theater New York City NY after 118 performances
1996 84th Australian Men's Tennis Boris Becker beats Michael Chang (62 64 26 62)
1996 Super Bowl XXX Dallas Cowboys beat Pittsburgh Steelers, 27-17 in Tempe; Super Bowl MVP Larry Brown, Dallas, Defensive Back
1998 Michelangelo's "Christ & the Woman of Samaria", sold for $7.4 million

---

Holidays
Note: Some Holidays are only applicable on a given "day of the week"

Rwanda : Democracy Day (1961)
Australia : Australia Day (1788 - 1993) - - - - - ( Monday )

---

Religious Observances
Roman Catholic : Feast of St Valerius
Roman Catholic : Feast of St Charlemagne
old Roman Catholic : Commemoration of St Peter Nolasco (now 1/31)
Anglican, Roman Catholic : Memorial of St Thomas Aquinas, priest, friar

---

Religious History
1581 Scotland's King James VI, who in 1603 would become England's James I, signed the Second Scottish Confession of Faith.
1822 Birth of William D. Longstaff, English philanthropist. A close acquaintance of Dwight L. Moody and Ira D. Sankey, Longstaff is better remembered today as author of the hymn, "Take Time to Be Holy."
1834 Birth of Sabine Baring-Gould, Anglican clergyman and author. A man of widely diverging interests, he published numerous books on history, biography, poetry and fiction. He also penned the enduring hymns, "Onward, Christian Soldiers" and "Now the Day is Over."
1947 In NY City, a copy of the 1640 Bay Psalm Book was purchased at an auction at Parke-Bernet Galleries for $150,000 --the highest price ever paid to date for a single volume. (The original title of the book was: "The Whole Book of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre.")
1977 The Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith published an 18-page document ruling out the admission of women to the Roman Catholic priesthood because women lacked a "natural resemblance which must exist between Christ and his ministers."

---

Thought for the day :
" When seeking love give nothing, Having found love give all. "

[GailA]

Today's graphic Betsy "Bear" Ross