Gotta have a NASA bit in here, right?
Where No Flag Has Gone Before:
Political and Technical Aspects of
Placing a Flag on the Moon
Anne M. Platoff
Hernandez Engineering Inc.
Houston, Texas
Awarded the Driver Award for the Best Paper Presented to the 26th Meeting
of the North American Vexillological Association
October 11, 1992 -- San Antonio, Texas
Prepared for
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
under contract NAS9-18263
August 1993
Abstract
The flag on the moon represents an important event in vexillological history. This paper examines the political and technical aspects of placing a flag on the moon, focusing on the first moon landing. During their historic extravehicular activity (EVA), the Apollo 11 crew planted the flag of the United States on the lunar surface. This flag-raising was strictly a symbolic activity, as the United Nations Treaty on Outer Space precluded any territorial claim. Nevertheless, there were domestic and international debates over the appropriateness of the event. Congress amended the agency's appropriations bill to prevent the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from placing flags of other nations, or those of international associations, on the moon during missions funded solely by the United States. Like any activity in space exploration, the Apollo flag-raising also provided NASA engineers with an interesting technical challenge. They designed a flagpole with a horizontal bar allowing the flag to "fly" without the benefit of wind to overcome the effects of the moon's lack of an atmosphere. Other factors considered in the design were weight, heat resistance, and ease of assembly by astronauts whose space suits restricted their range of movement and ability to grasp items. As NASA plans a return to the moon and an expedition to Mars, we will likely see flags continue to go "where no flag has gone before."
Read the entire paper here.
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Air Power
Petlyakov PE-8
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The project that would eventually result in the Pe-8 four engine bomber was begun in 1934 by the Tupolev design bureau. It was created to develop an aircraft to replace the TB-3 heavy bomber and meet a list of new requirements. Among these were the ability to reach 8000 meters (12,640 feet) in altitude, carry a two ton bomb load, and attain a speed of 273mph (440kph).
Tupolev selected Vladimir Petlyakov was to head the aircraft project which was to be designated the ANT-42. Petlyakov's team soon ran into problems with the original engines which were not sufficiently powerful at altitudes over 5000 meters (11,025 feet). This problem was solved with the selection of four M-105 engines supercharged by a M-100 engine in the rear fuselage.
The project was disrupted in October of 1937 when both Tupolev and Petlyakov were arrested. Stalin's purges of the Red Air Force officer corps in 1938 also delayed the program. Even with these delays the first prototype flew on 27 December 1937 and performed very well in the early trials. It was also tested with skies for landings on ice and snow, but these were replaced with large tires which functioned better.
After the initial test flights, the designers chose to remove the complicated supercharging system and extra M-100 engine. Production of the new aircraft began in 1939. The project was delayed several times due to lack of engines, and eventually put on hold in 1940 for that very reason.
The first unit to receive the aircraft was the 14th heavy bomber regiment. By early 1941 the regiment had been given all 18 completed aircraft, but these soon were grounded due to lack of spare parts. The bomber first went into service in 1940. With the start of the Great Patriotic war the bomber saw action in many small raids on Koenigsberg, Berlin, and other targets.
1942 the aircraft was re-designated the Pe-8, in honor of Petlyakov who had been killed earlier that year. Also during this time there were also attempts during the war to improve the Pe-8's engines, but these were not entirely successful. The bomber continued to serve with the Red Air Force, having little real impact, with its original engines until the end of the war.
Production of the Pe-8 ended in 1944 with only a small number of aircraft being built (no more than 142 examples). The last four aircraft were converted into VIP transports. These had the bomb bay removed and additional passenger seats added. Cargo capacity was also increased and all military equipment was deleted. The range of the new plane was increased to 7000 kilometers (4,350 miles).
In the years following the war most of the Pe-8 bombers were converted to the transport configuration. Many were operated by Aeroflot or used for polar scientific research expeditions. Some of the research aircraft were used as late as 1957. The remaining Pe-8's were used to test aircraft engines, high speed research aircraft, and cruise missiles based on wartime German plans.
Pe-8 heavy bombers formed a part of the Soviet long range aviation forces. It was used alongside the IL-4 as a strategic bomber, which made up the bulk of the bomber fleet. The aircraft was used in the strategic bomber role against German cities.
The bomber was a versatile weapons platform with fairly heavy defensive armament. It could also carry a wide variety of high explosive bombs (as can be seen in the table to the right). it was also capable of carrying mines, target markers, or VAP-500 and VAP-1000 chemical weapon dispensers. Even so, the aircraft was not successful. This was largely because of production problems and not due to any fault in the Pe-8's design.
The only four-engined bomber the USSR used during WWII. The USSR had no plans for strategic bombardment, and only a few such attacks on Germany were made. The Pe-8's most important claim to fame is flying Molotov from Washington to Moskow! Only 81 were built, some with M-30B diesel engines or M-82 radials. A few had a fifth engine, to supply compressed air to the other engines, enhancing the performance at high altitude.
Specifications:
Designer: Vladamir Petlyakov
Manufacturer: State Industries
Primary Role: Heavy Strategic Bomber
Year Adopted: 1940
Operational Status: Russia - Obsolete (Produced from 1940 to 1944)
Engine: 4 x Mikulin AM-35A, 12-cylinder, liquid-cooled, with 1,350 hp each
Crew: 10
Dimensions:
Wingspan: 131 feet
Length: 73 feet, 9 inches
Height: 20 feet
Performance :
Maximum Speed: 272 miles per hour at 24,930 feet altitude
Empty Weight: 37,480 lb increasing to 40,000 lb
Loaded Weight: 63,052 lb
Max Take-Off Weight: 73,469 lbs
Ceiling: 22,965 feet
Range: 3,383 miles
Armaments:
2 x 20mm cannon
4 x 7.62mm ShKAS Machine Guns
8818 lbs (4000 kg) of bombs
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