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ANCIENT WARFARE
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PART II: ANCIENT ROMAN MILITARY
INTRODUCTION
From early times right down to the 3rd century A.D, the Roman army was based on its legions. A legion varied in strength from 4,000 to 6,000 men, and was subdivided onto ten cohorts. Its leader used the title of legatus. His staff officers were called tribuni. Senior non-commissioned officers were called centurions, who varied greatly in rank. The soldiers of the legion were picked men: They were all Roman citizens and received a higher pay than the auxillary troops - that is, foreigners who serve with the Roman army. A legion consisited of heavily armoured infantry (foot soldiers). The Roman infantry became a feared force, well disciplined and well trained. Their weapons were two pila or javelins each and a short thrusting gladius or sword. Cavalry was supplied by the auxilaries ( second line troops ) and was organised mainly in units 500 strong. When it was on campaigns the army was accompanied by a number of specialists. One was the camp commandant, who was responsible for the organisation of the camp. The Romans were very careful about their camps - no Roman army halted for a single night without digging a trenches and fortifying its camp. Each soldier took his share in establishing the camp and striking the camp the next day. Another specialist was the quaestor, whose duty was to look after all the money matter. then there were the engineers and all kinds of craftsmen and artisans. They were responsible for siege operations and for the rather primative Roman"artillery", which consisted of big catapults and complicated machines a little like crossbows. These were mainly used for hurling big rocks and stones at the walls of a defence place. The engineers also had to build the moveable towers that were used in sieges - the Roman soldiers went up inside these towers so that they could see over the walls of a fortified place and shoot their stones and arrows into it. The engineers also made the scaling ladders that were used for getting over walls. The Roman soldiers won their battles just as much from their staying - power as by their courage. They had to be strong and fit, for in addition to his weapons each soldier had to carry provisions for two weeks and tools for pitching camp. When the soldiers went into line of battle to fight, the formation was called acies;when they were marching in column it was called agmen. If during a battle the legion were hard pressed the soldiers formed an orbis, which was very like the square that the British army formed in the 18th and 19th centuries if it was in difficulties. The standard of a legion was the aquila ,or eagle - made of silver or bronze and showing the bird with outstretched wings. It was the greatest disgrace if the eagle was captured. At its finest period the Roman army was almost inconquerable. There were three main reasons for this :
- Discipline
- Hard and efficient training
- Speed at which they learnt new tactics
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THE ROMAN ARMY
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The basic cavalry soldier was almost always armed with a shield and stabbing spear, supplemented by a sword.
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Hastatus: 'spearman'; legionary heavy infantryman. The Hastatus or Princeps were the first infantrymen because they were poor. They couldn't afford chain mail so instead they got a bronze plate.
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 Centurio: 'commander of hundred'; centurion; officer. Chief among the noncommissioned officers (those who were not of equestrian or senatorial rank) were the centurions (centuriones), each of whom commanded an eighty-man century. The centurions were professional soldiers, responsible for maintaining discipline in their units and for supervising the fighting on the field. In other words, they were the officers who kept the army running (and fighting) smoothly. The armor of the centurions was similar to that of other officers, with the exception of their helmets, which were topped with a transverse crest that extended from side to side instead of front to back, the shin protectors (greaves) they wore on their legs, and the vinewood staff they carried to discipline soldiers. Under each centurion was a standardbearer, a deputy (optio) who took command of the century if the centurion was killed or wounded, and the tesserarius, who was in charge of the sentries.
 Legionarius: The legion was the basic unit of Rome's standing army of career soldiers, the legionaries, who were all Roman citizens and fought primarily as foot-soldiers (infantry). The number of legions under arms varied in different time periods (there were, for example, 28 legions under Augustus in 25 BCE), and each legion had both a number and a title, though some numbers were duplicated (we know, for example, of III Augusta, III Cyrenaica, III Gallica, III Italica, III Parthica).
Though the exact numbers of men in a legion varied, the basic pattern of organizationremained the same. The smallest unit was the tent group (contubernium), composed of 8 men who shared a tent, a mule, and eating equipment. These were organized into a disciplinary unit called a century (despite the fact that a century typically had 80 rather than 100 men), under the command of a centurion. The basic fighting unit was a cohort, composed of six centuries (480 men plus 6 centurions). The legion itself was composed of ten cohorts, and the first cohort had many extra men—the clerks, engineers, and other specialists who did not usually fight—and the senior centurion of the legion, the primipilus, or “number one javelin.”
 Praetorian guard: Created by Augustus as a personal bodyguard, based inside and outside Rome. A selected body.The Praetorian Guard was formed by Augustus Caesar in 27 BC, as an Imperial bodyguard unit, stationed in Rome and neighboring towns. It was originally comprised of 9 Cohorts, though it was later increased to 12 Cohorts, all of which were moved into the city of Rome itself. The Praetorian Guard was the pinnacle of the Roman military. Only the most experienced, honored, and highest ranking soldiers would be able to join their ranks. Annual pay for a Praetorian soldier was many times that of the common Legionaire, though the status alone would have been enough.
 Standards (Signa): One of the most striking visual aspects of the Roman army were the standards, tall poles topped with various insignia and symbols, including many types of animals. During the Empire, the image of the emperor was also added to many standards. The standards were not just for show; they served important practical functions as well. Each century, cohort, and legion had its own standard; during battle and other activities, these were held by officers called standardbearers (general term signifer) who were marked out from other soldiers by the animal-head skins they wore on their heads, which can be clearly seen on this relief from Trajan's column. The standards helped to keep the units together, since the soldiers could see them above the action. Standards also helped to preserve the cohesiveness and pride of each unit, as they represented a concrete symbol of that unit's achievements. They were also used in various religious rituals designed to promote unity. The most important standard in each legion was the legionary eagle, made of a precious metal (usually silver) and symbol of the power of Rome and the honor of the legion. To lose the legionary eagle in battle was a terrible disgrace, and leaders like Augustus who succeeded in recovering captured legionary eagles capitalized on the propaganda value of the event (for example, Augustus depicted the surrender of the eagle that had been captured by the Parthians on the cuiras of his Prima Porta statue). The eagle standard was carried by a special standard bearer (aquilifer) who wore a lion-skin headdress.
Tribunus militum: senior legionary officer. Generals commanded many legions, but each legion had its own commander (at least after the time of Augustus), called the legionary legate (legatus), who was also of senatorial rank. Under each legionary legate were six military tribunes (tribuni militares), who carried out administrative duties. Young upper-class Roman men used this position as a stepping-stone to a political career, so the tribunes often did not have much military experience or ability.
Veles: 'cloak wearer'; republican legionary skirmisher, the fourth line of soldiers, known as the Velites. These came from the poorest class of citizens. Lightly armed with perhaps no more than a javelin and a light round shield, they were used as skirmishers to engage and perhaps draw the enemy onto the battle line proper. This task achieved, the Velites would rapidly withdraw to the rear through gaps left for them in the main battle line.
The Urban Cohorts: When Augustus instituted the office of city prefect (praefectus urbi), he also established 3 cohorts (the cohortes urbanae) to constitute a sort of police force for the city of Rome. These troops were also stationed in the camp of the praetorians in Rome, though they served under the command of the city prefect, a man of senatorial rank. Outstanding service in the urban cohorts could lead to promotion into the more prestigious praetorian guard.
 General: Each military campaign was assigned one general (dux), though there was not a single commander-in-chief until imperial times because a number of campaigns could be conducted simultaneously in different geographic areas. Generals were always aristocrats of the senatorial class, usually consuls or ex-consuls, since they had to hold at least praetorian rank in order to be granted imperium (the right to command an army) by the Senate; during the Empire, the emperor was the sole commander-in-chief, though he frequently delegated the actual command duties to generals who were his close associates, often relatives by birth or marriage. Generals and other officers wore Greek style armor over the military tunic—a molded leather breastplate that imitated the musculature of the chest and fringed strips of leather over the thighs and shoulders. Extant depictions of generals do not show generals wearing helmets, but they may of course have worn them in battle. The item of clothing that visually distinguished a general from all other officers was his purple cloak (this was a military style cloak, called a lacerna, that was fastened by a large brooch on one shoulder).
 Auxilia: Auxiliary troops (auxilia) were composed of noncitizens, usually from the various Roman provinces. As their name suggests, they were intended to supplement the legionary infantry that was the backbone of the Roman army by employing different methods of fighting, including light-armed infantry, slingers, archers, and especially cavalry. Auxiliary soldiers were also organized in cohorts and usually served under the command of Roman officers, though they were occasionally led by chiefs from their own regions. Auxiliary cavalrymen used thrusting spears and longer swords than the legionaries; they carried smaller shields and often wore armor of chain mail. The parade dress of the cavalry was quite dramatic, including a mask that covered the face or even the whole head; even the horses wore elaborate face coverings.
NOTE: For sources and a more detailed description on how the Ancient Roman Army was organized, please click on the links below (the ones I was able to save anyway - or just look up Roman Army at Google.com):
ARMAMENTARIVM
The Roman Army
The Roman Army Page
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ROMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR |
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The tombstone of Publius Flavoleius Cordus shows us a legionary of the Fourteenth Legion shortly before it joined the force which invaded Britain in AD 43. He wears a tunic, but no armour, and carries his shield slung over his left shoulder. He is holding a spear of some kind (too damaged for certainty) and wears two belts around his waist, with a sword on one and a dagger on the other. He is holding a scroll in his left hand - possibly his will or even an honorable discharge certificate. |
Helmet
Roman helmets were made of iron or copper alloy (both bronze and brass are known). The main features are the bowl, a neckguard (to protect from blows to the neck), cheekpieces (to protect the sides of the face), and a browguard (defending against downward blows to the face). Many helmets had fittings to allow for the attachment of crests. Soldiers often punched or scratched their names and those of their centurions onto their helmets as a mark of ownership. |
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Body armour
The Romans used three main types of body armour: mail, scale and segmental. All body armour would have been worn over a padded arming doublet. Mail was normally made of iron rings, each riveted one interlinked with four other punched or welded rings. In the early imperial period, the wearer's shoulders were reinforced with 'doubling' which was fastened across the chest. Used throughout the Roman period. Scale armour was made of small plates of iron or copper alloy wired to their neighbours horizontally and sewn to a fabric or leather backing. In the 2nd century A.D., a new form of semi-rigid cuirass was introduced where each scale was wired to its vertical, as well as horizontal, neighbours. Similarly used throughout the Roman period. Segmental armour consisted of overlapping curved bands or iron fastened to internal leather straps. Used from the 1st to 3rd centuries A.D. |
Limb armour
Greaves were worn by centurions and Republican legionaries (although they were also occasionally used by legionaries in the imperial period ). Segmental arm guards of both iron and copper alloy were also used by infantry. Like segmental body armour, the individual plates were attached to flexible leather straps. Cavalry also wore greaves as part of their 'sports' equipment when involved in the elaborate practice manoeuvres known as the Hippike Gymnasia. |
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Shield
Roman soldiers carried a shield on their left hand side. Legionaries had a curved shield (oval in the Republican period - rectangular in the Imperial) whilst auxiliaries had flat ones, with a variety of shapes (oval, hexagonal, rectangular) recorded. Shields were usually made of double or triple thickness plywood. They were edged with copper alloy binding and had a central iron or copper alloy boss covering the horizontal handgrip. In the later imperial period, oval plank-built shields came into use, sometimes edged with rawhide shrunk into place. |
Sword
In the 3rd or 2nd century B.C., the Romans adopted a long-pointed, double-edged Iberian weapon which they called the 'Spanish sword'. This basic design, with various modifications continued through to the 2nd century A.D. Ordinary infantrymen and cavalrymen wore their swords on the right side, but centurions wore them on the left. Cavalry used a longer, narrower, sword that followed Celtic types. This was eventually adopted by infantry as well and - now worn on the left - replaced the 'Spanish sword'. |
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Dagger
Like the sword, the Roman dagger was also adopted from Iberian examples. In the 1st century A.D. the weapons were often carried in elaborately decorated sheaths inlaid with enamel or precious metals. Daggers grew larger in the 2nd century A.D., although they retained the same basic form as their predecessors and still resembled their Spanish ancestor. |
Spear
A range of spear types seem to have been used, from light javelins for skirmishers, to thrusting spears for line infantry (including some legionaries), right up to two-handed lances used by armoured cavalry. Spears had a conical metal shoe or butt which allowed them to be stuck into the ground without damage to the shaft, but it could also serve as a secondary weapon if the head (which was usually of iron) should be broken. Shafts were made from coppiced poles of woods like ash or hazel which possessed the right qualities of flexibility and strength. Javelins were occasionally used with a throwing strap to improve their range. |
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Pilum
The pilum was a heavy javelin, used by legionaries in battle as a short-range shock weapon. It had a pyramidal iron head on a long iron shank, fastened to a wooden shaft. There is represenational evidence that suggests weights were added to pila in the imperial period, presumably to improve their penetrative capabilities. Early imperial examples from Oberaden in Germany survived with most of their wooden shafts, as well as their iron fittings, intact. The head was presumably intended to penetrate both a wooden shield and body armour, the long iron shank passing through the hole made by the head. Once the weapon had struck home, the shank might bend, rendering it impossible to return it. |
Belt
The belt was mainly used as a suspension method for the sword and dagger, although it could help to transfer part of the weight of a mail cuirass from the shoulders to the hips. Baldrics became more common in the 1st century A.D. Sometimes two belts were worn, one for the sword and one for the dagger. Infantry belts were decorated with attached copper alloy plates, themselves often adorned with embossed or inlaid designs and finished with a tin wash or silver plating. |
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Tunic
The military tunic was characteristically worn above the knee, a distiction only shared, strangely enough, by slaves. Ordinary citizens did not expose their knees. The tunic was worn under the armour and seems to have been like a large baggy T-shirt in form, seamed along the sides. We do not know for certain what colours were used, although scholars have suggested both red and white as common military tunic colours (the evidence is equivocal). Materials used included wool and linen. In the accompanying illustration, the exposed areas of Flavoleius' tunic have been shaded. |
Boots
Made of leather, these boots (it is incorrect to call them 'sandals') were elaborately cut out from a one-piece upper with separate soles finished with conical iron hobnails. The boots were laced all the way up the front. The nailing designs on the sole are arranged very ergonomically and anticipate modern training shoe soles designed to optimize the transferral of weight between the different parts of the foot when placed on the ground. Sculptural evidence shows that socks would be worn within the boot, open at the toe and the heel. |
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Next Tuesday, Continuation of Part II: Ancient Roman Military |
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