The XYZ Affair and The United States Quasi-War with France 1798-1800

In the wake of the ratification of Jay's Treaty between the United States and England, the French policy of seizing American vessels on the high seas threatened to cripple the American merchant fleet. Unprepared for war and lacking a sufficient naval force to defend American merchant ships at sea, President John Adams dispatched a special commission to France to renegotiate trade treaties with the French Republic.

The American commission to France was made up of John Marshall of Virginia, Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts, and South Carolinian Charles Pinckney. While the Americans were negotiating from a standpoint of weakness, France was working from a point of strength. Bonaparte's army had proven highly effective in its conquest of Europe, and France's governing body, the Directory, had gained considerable prestige abroad as a result of French military might. As the French army proved triumphant, the officials within the Directory had become corrupt and grasping. Small nations that wished to avoid conflict with France, such as Portugal, accepted the fact that bribes and loans had to be provided to the Directory.

If the American commissioners were to succeed in establishing peace with France, they had to gain the cooperation of the French Directory's Minister of Foreign Relations, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord. The Americans hoped that Talleyrand would be open to constructive discussion and peaceful settlement with America because he had been treated well during his two-year exile in the United States. However, Talleyrand's experience in America had the opposite effect. Talleyrand disliked his stay in the United States, and grew to believe that the Americans would always be more favorably inclined to ally themselves with Britain than France. He felt Americans had not yet developed a separate national image from England. Language, culture, and history united the Americans and the English, and Talleyrand ultimately viewed the United States as a nation whose power needed to be checked.

However, Talleyrand aside, the American commission was doomed from the start, largely due to the corruption of the French Directory. Before the Americans were allowed an audience with the Foreign Minister, they were pointedly informed that personal bribes to Directory ministers in the sum of 50,000 pounds would be required. That initial bribe would then be followed by a large loan to the French government, and only then could negotiations on a new treaty and the seizure of American ships begin. Outraged and shocked by this demand, the Americans refused to pay. For four months the Americans demanded to be diplomatically recognized by the French government and to begin negotiations, and for four months the French made it clear that until the bribe had been paid, nothing could be done. In January 1798, the French further hardened their determination to bully the Americans into denouncing Jay's Treaty. Without warning, France announced it would confiscate any ship found to be carrying English goods of any kind. After a year of fruitless demands and counterdemands, the American commissioners returned to the United States having achieved nothing.

While Marshall, Gerry, and Pinckney had been in France, the United States Congress had been debating the issue of what could be done to defend American ships on the high seas. Many Federalists argued that a navy should be established and every effort made to complete the three frigates that had been under construction since 1794. They further insisted that the time had come to establish a separate executive department to oversee naval affairs--the Department of the Navy. Republicans, opposed to government spending, were simultaneously calling for an investigation of the War Department and War Secretary McHenry on the overspending and delays in the construction of ships. Party divisions deadlocked action on all issues. In March 1798, President Adams received verification of the American commission's failure to gain any ground in establishing new relations with France. That month, he sent a message to Congress announcing that efforts to reach a peaceful settlement had failed. He encouraged Congress to take action to protect American merchant shipping.

Initially, many Republican members of Congress doubted the truthfulness of Adams's announcement of the failed mission, seeing it as a Federalist ploy to build a navy. However, Adams produced the diplomatic papers recording the French demands, after having substituted X, Y, and Z for the names of the French agents, thus giving rise to this affair's historic name. Congressional outrage with France grew. Further debate on ways to placate the French ceased, and Congress quickly focused on finding a way to defend American ships at sea.

Objectives and Tactics of the Quasi-War

In April 1798, France's rejection of a diplomatic solution resulted in outrage in the United States. Although Adams refused to call for a declaration of war, Congress was free to approve financial support for a buildup of the army and navy. The primary and earliest objective of the war was to rid the U.S. coastline of French "pirates" who were preying on American shipping. In May 1798, Congress authorized U.S. warships to seize "armed vessels under authority or pretense of authority from the Republic of France" when they were found operating in American coastal waters. In July 1799, the scope was widened, allowing U.S. commanders and privateers to take French armed vessels anywhere in the world. Within a matter of months, French privateers had been removed from the coastal waters of the United States.

U.S. strategy during the Quasi-War was based in part on an unofficial maritime alliance with Great Britain. By allying with the most powerful navy in the world, the United States received support in the North Atlantic and the West Indies--the theater that proved to be the major area of operations during the war. Beyond attacking French privateers and naval vessels, the ships of the U.S. Navy were active in convoying and protecting American merchant shipping.

President Adams saw the war as a means of persuading France and other world powers to respect America's rights on the oceans and her right to free trade as a neutral and independent nation.

The Navy's First Fights and Heroes

The American navy's first victory in the Quasi-War occurred off the coast of New Jersey in July 1798. Captain Stephen Decatur, Sr., received word of the plundering of a coastal trader by the French schooner Croyable. Decatur immediately set sail in the 20-gun schooner Delaware.

Encountering the French privateer at sea, Decatur lured the Frenchman to approach by pretending to be a merchant vessel. By the time the Croyable, armed with only twelve guns, realized that this sought-after prize was in fact a more powerful ship of war, she herself had become a prize of the U.S. Navy.

Battle between the Delaware and French privateer Croyable. From the collections of The Mariners' Museum.
Though the action was short and the outcome never in question, the American navy had won its first prize and added another ship to its growing fleet. Decatur escorted the Croyable to Philadelphia, where she was recommissioned as the Retaliation.

Truxtun and the Constellation versus L'Insurgente

Decatur's capture of the Croyable was but a hint of actions to come during the Quasi-War. Among the naval commanders who took part in the battles against France, few are better known than

A former Revolutionary War privateer, Truxtun received a commendation from George Washington for his service during that conflict. During the 1780s and 1790s, Truxtun had earned a reputation as an extremely capable merchantman, navigator, and protector of his passengers, crew, and cargo. In 1794, Truxtun became supervisor of construction for the frigate Constellation in Baltimore.

During the Quasi-War, Truxtun commanded this ship on her first armed cruise. The new Constellation had both speed and maneuverability, qualities that earned her the name "Yankee Race Horse." For operations in the West Indies and the Caribbean, Secretary Stoddert divided the fleet into four squadrons; Truxtun was given command of the Leeward Island Squadron, which consisted of the Constellation and two brigs.

On February 9, 1799, Truxtun was headed for the island of Nevis when he caught sight of the French frigate L'Insurgente. After pursuing the Frenchman, Truxtun prepared for action. However, as the two ships were on the verge of engaging one another, a squall engulfed them, snapping the main topmast of the French frigate. The loss of mobility, coupled with the French tendency to fire high into the opponent's rigging, gave Truxtun a deadly advantage.

Unable to maneuver and suffering from heavy damage to her hull by American gunnery, the 40-gun L'Insurgente was defeated by the 38-gun Constellation. The battle had lasted only seventy-five minutes. The Constellation suffered three casualties, compared to seventy sustained by L'Insurgente. "A very fine frigate [is] being added to our infant Navy" was the report sent to Stoddert.

The Constellation versus La Vengeance

A year later, Truxtun was again in the Caribbean when he spotted the French 50-gun La Vengeance, commanded by Captain Citizen Pitot, headed to France from Guadeloupe.

Although Truxtun realized his opponent outgunned him, he was convinced that the Constellation's greater maneuverability and more accurate gunnery would win the day. A four-hour battle ensued. Again, the French focused their fire on the American rigging, while the Yankee ship pounded away at the Frenchman's hull and timbers. The punishment to La Vengeance was so great that three times the French attempted to haul down their colors. However, in the growing darkness, Truxtun was not able to see the signal. After five hours of cannon fire, the French managed to weaken the Constellation's mainmast to the point that it snapped off at the deck. Truxtun pulled back to repair the damage, and La Vengeance escaped into the darkness.

The Constellation limped to Port Royal, Jamaica, while the French frigate made her way to Dutch Curaçao. In his report to the French government, Pitot reported erroneously that he had just fought an American ship of the line. The American frigates had become a force to be respected by their opponents.

The Treaty of Mortefountaine and the Survival of the Navy

Contrary to the advice of most of his cabinet, President Adams continued to pursue a diplomatic resolution to the conflict. A peace commission was sent to meet with Napoleon, who knew that France's most ardent enemy was England and that a continued war would throw the United States further on the side of the enemy.

Negotiations were held in Paris starting in April 1800, and the Treaty of Mortefountaine was approved by Congress in 1801. Meanwhile, the presidency had passed from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson. Through the terms of the treaty, the 1778 Franco-American Treaty of Alliance was annulled and France agreed to respect United States neutrality. In return, the United States canceled all claims against the French for attacks on shipping during the war.

Clearly, Truxtun's actions and several smaller engagements gained the U.S. Navy respect and status. The navy had succeeded in protecting American commerce and had fought a European naval power to the negotiating table.

As a result of these actions, the navy's survival was assured, but its strength would remain in question. Many political leaders, particularly those in the administration of Thomas Jefferson, felt that a large navy was wasteful and unnecessary.

Following the cessation of hostilities with France, Secretary Stoddert bowed to the inevitable and proposed the Peace Establishment Act, which would reduce the navy to thirteen frigates and cut the number of officers and crew. Of the thirteen frigates to be retained, six would operate under a reduced crew and seven would be put on reserve.

Excellent history here for all of us.

One simple addition, President Adams did not declare war against these French pirates. He just had them destroyed or removed, and the matter was over in a few months.

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