A Primer on Space WeatherPosted on 12/14/2006 8:01:48 PM PST by bd476
A Primer on Space Weather
We all know that the Sun is overwhelmingly important to life on Earth, but few of us have been given a good description of our star and its variations. The Sun is an average star, similar to millions of others in the Universe. It is a prodigious energy machine, manufacturing about 3.8 x 1023 kiloWatts (or kiloJoules/sec). In other words, if the total output of the Sun was gathered for one second it would provide the U.S. with enough energy, at its current usage rate, for the next 9,000,000 years. The basic energy source for the Sun is nuclear fusion, which uses the high temperatures and densities within the core to fuse hydrogen, producing energy and creating helium as a byproduct. The core is so dense and the size of the Sun so great that energy released at the center of the Sun takes about 50,000,000 years to make its way to the surface, undergoing countless absorptions and re-emissions in the process. If the Sun were to stop producing energy today, it would take 50,000,000 years for significant effects to be felt at Earth!
The Sun has been producing its radiant and thermal energies for the past four or five billion years. It has enough hydrogen to continue producing for another hundred billion years. However, in about ten to twenty billion years the surface of the Sun will begin to expand, enveloping the inner planets (including Earth). At that time, our Sun will be known as a red giant star. If the Sun were more massive, it would collapse and re-ignite as a helium-burning star. Due to its average size, however, the Sun is expected to merely contract into a relatively small, cool star known as a white dwarf.
It has long been known that the Sun is neither featureless nor steady. (Theophrastus first identified sunspots in the year 325 B.C.) Some of the more important solar features are explained in the following sections.
(MPEG movie 24 kbytes, 38 frames, 300x300 pixels) Sunspots, dark areas on the solar surface, contain transient, concentrated magnetic fields. They are the most prominent visible features on the Sun; a moderate-sized sunspot is about as large as Earth. Sunspots form and dissipate over periods of days or weeks. They occur when strong magnetic fields emerge through the solar surface and allow the area to cool slightly, from a background value of 6000 degrees C down to about 4200 degrees C; this area appears as a dark spot in contrast with the Sun. The darkest area at the center of a sunspot is called the umbra; it is here that the magnetic field strengths are the highest. The less-dark, striated area around the umbra is called the penumbra. Sunspots rotate with the solar surface, taking about 27 days to make a complete rotation as seen from Earth. Sunspots near the Sun's equator rotate at a faster rate than those near the solar poles. Groups of sunspots, especially those with complex magnetic field configurations, are often the sites of flares.
Over the last 300 years, the average number of sunspots has regularly waxed and waned in an 11-year sunspot cycle. The Sun, like Earth, has its seasons but its year equals 11 of ours.
Coronal holes are variable solar features that can last for months to years. They are seen as large, dark holes when the Sun is viewed in x-ray wavelengths. These holes are rooted in large cells of unipolar magnetic fields on the Sun's surface; their field lines extend far out into the solar system. These open field lines allow a continuous outflow of high-velocity solar wind. Coronal holes have a long-term cycle, but it doesn't correspond exactly to the sunspot cycle; they holes tend to be most numerous in
the years following sunspot maximum. At some stages of the solar cycle, these holes are continuously visible at the solar north and south poles.
Solar prominences (seen as dark filaments on the disk) are usually quiescent clouds of solar material held above the solar surface by magnetic fields. Most prominences erupt at some point in their lifetime, releasing large amounts of solar material into space.
Solar flares are intense, temporary releases of energy. They are seen at ground-based observatories as bright areas on the Sun in optical wavelengths and as bursts of noise at radio wavelengths; they can last from minutes to hours. Flares are our solar system's largest explosive events which can be equivalent to approximately 40 billion Hiroshima-size atomic bombs. The primary energy source for flares appears to be the tearing and reconnection of strong magnetic fields. They radiate throughout the electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma rays to x-rays, through visible light out to kilometer-long radio waves.
The outer solar atmosphere, the corona, is structured by strong magnetic fields. Where these fields are closed, often above sunspot groups, the confined solar atmosphere can suddenly and violently release bubbles or tongues of gas and magnetic fields called coronal mass ejections. A large CME can contain 10.0E16 grams (a billion tons) of matter that can be accelerated to several million miles per hour in a spectacular explosion. Solar material streaks out through the interplanetary medium, impacting any planets or spacecraft in its path. CMEs are sometimes associated with flares but usually occur independently. The region between the Sun and the planets has been termed the interplanetary medium. Although once considered a perfect vacuum, this is actually a turbulent region dominated by the solar wind, which flows at velocities of approximately 250-1000 km/s (about 600,000 to 2,000,000 miles per hour). Other characteristics of the solar wind (density, composition, and magnetic field strength, among others) vary with changing conditions on the Sun. The effect of the solar wind can be seen in the tails of comets which always point away from the Sun.
The solar wind flows around obstacles such as planets, but those planets with their own magnetic fields respond in specific ways. Earth's magnetic field is very similar to the pattern formed when iron filings align around a bar magnet. Under the influence of the solar wind, these magnetic field lines are compressed in the Sunward direction and stretched out in the downwind direction. This creates the magnetosphere, a complex, teardrop-shaped cavity around Earth. The Van Allen
radiation belts are within this cavity, as is the ionosphere, a layer of Earth's upper atmosphere where photo ionization by solar x-rays and extreme ultraviolet rays creates free electrons. Earth's magnetic field senses the solar wind its speed, density, and magnetic field. Because the solar wind varies over time scales as short as seconds, the interface that separates interplanetary space from the magnetosphere is very dynamic. Normally this interface called the magnetopause lies at a distance equivalent to about 10 Earth radii in the direction of the Sun. However, during episodes of elevated solar wind density or velocity, the magnetopause can be pushed inward to within 6.6 Earth radii (the altitude of geosynchronous satellites). As the magnetosphere extracts energy from the solar wind, internal processes produce geomagnetic storms.
The aurora is a dynamic and visually delicate manifestation of solar-induced geomagnetic storms. The solar wind energizes electrons and ions in the magnetosphere. These particles usually enter Earth's upper atmosphere near the polar regions. When the particles strike the molecules and atoms of the thin, high atmosphere, some of them start to glow in different colors.
Aurorae begin between 60 and 80 degrees latitude. As a storm intensifies, the aurorae spread toward the equator. During an unusually large storm in 1909, an aurora was visible at Singapore, on the geomagnetic equator. The aurorae provide pretty displays, but they are just a visible sign of atmospheric changes that may wreak havoc on technological systems.
Aurora in El Paso County, Texas, August 12, 2000.
Courtesy of Christopher Grohusko.
Energetic protons can reach Earth within 30 minutes of a major flare's peak. During such an event, Earth is showered energetic solar particles (primarily protons) released from the flare site. Some of these particles spiral down Earth's magnetic field lines, penetrating the upper layers of our atmosphere where they produce additional ionization and may produce a significant increase in the radiation environment.
One to four days after a flare or eruptive prominence occurs, a slower cloud of solar material and magnetic fields reaches Earth, buffeting the magnetosphere and resulting in a geomagnetic storm. These storms are extraordinary variations in Earth's surface magnetic field. During a geomagnetic storm, portions of the solar wind's energy is transferred to the magnetosphere, causing Earth's magnetic field to change rapidly in direction and intensity and energize the particle populations within it.
Many communication systems utilize the ionosphere to reflect radio signals over long distances. Ionospheric storms can affect radio communication at all latitudes. Some radio frequencies are absorbed and others are reflected, leading to rapidly fluctuating signals and unexpected propagation paths. TV and commercial radio stations are little affected by solar activity, but ground-to-air, ship-to-shore, Voice of America, Radio Free Europe, and amateur radio are frequently disrupted. Radio operators using high frequencies rely upon solar and geomagnetic alerts to keep their communication circuits up and running.
Some military detection or early-warning systems are also affected by solar activity. The Over-the-Horizon Radar bounces signals off the ionosphere in order to monitor the launch of aircraft and missiles from long distances. During geomagnetic storms, this system can be severely hampered by radio clutter. Some submarine detection systems use the magnetic signatures of submarines as one input to their locating schemes. Geomagnetic storms can mask and distort these signals.
The Federal Aviation Administration routinely receives alerts of solar radio bursts so that they can recognize communication problems and forego unnecessary maintenance. When an aircraft and a ground station are aligned with the Sun, jamming of air-control radio frequencies can occur. This can also happen when an Earth station, a satellite, and the Sun are in alignment.
Systems such as LORAN and OMEGA are adversely affected when solar activity disrupts their signal propagation. The OMEGA system consists of eight transmitters located through out the world. Airplanes and ships use the very low frequency signals from these transmitters to determine their positions. During solar events and geomagnetic storms, the system can give navigators information that is inaccurate by as much as several miles. If navigators are alerted that a proton event or geomagnetic storm is in progress, they can switch to a backup system. GPS signals are affected when solar activity causes sudden variations in the density of the ionosphere.
Geomagnetic storms and increased solar ultraviolet emission heat Earth's upper atmosphere, causing it to expand. The heated air rises, and the density at the orbit of satellites up to about 1000 km increases significantly. This results in increased drag on satellites in space, causing them to slow and change orbit slightly. Unless low-Earth-orbit satellites are routinely boosted to higher orbits, they slowly fall, and eventually burn up in Earth's atmosphere.
Skylab is an example of a spacecraft re-entering Earth's atmosphere prematurely as a result of higher-than-expected solar activity. During the great geomagnetic storm of March 1989, four of the Navy's navigational satellites had to be taken out of service for up to a week.
As technology has allowed spacecraft components to become smaller, their miniaturized systems have become increasingly vulnerable to the more energetic solar particles. These particles can cause physical damage to microchips and can change software commands in satellite- borne computers.
Differential Charging. Another problem for satellite operators is differential charging. During geomagnetic storms, the number and energy of electrons and ions increase. When a satellite travels through this energized environment, the charged particles striking the spacecraft cause different portions of the spacecraft to be differentially charged. Eventually, electrical discharges can arc across spacecraft components, harming and possibly disabling them. Bulk Charging. Bulk charging (also called deep charging) occurs when energetic particles, primarily electrons, penetrate the outer covering of a satellite and deposit their charge in its internal parts. If sufficient charge accumulates in any one component, it may attempt to neutralize by discharging to other components. This discharge is potentially hazardous to the satellite's electronic systems.
Intense solar flares release very-high-energy particles that can be as injurious to humans as the low-energy radiation from nuclear blasts. Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere allow adequate protection for us on the ground, but astronauts in space are subject to potentially lethal dosages of radiation. The penetration of high-energy particles into living cells, measured as radiation dose, leads to chromosome damage and, potentially, cancer. Large doses can be fatal immediately. Solar protons with energies greater than 30 MeV are particularly hazardous. In October 1989, the Sun produced enough energetic particles that an astronaut on the Moon, wearing only a space suit and caught out in the brunt of the storm, would probably have died. (Astronauts who had time to gain safety in a shelter beneath moon soil would have absorbed only slight amounts of radiation.)
Solar proton events can also produce elevated radiation aboard aircraft flying at high altitudes. Although these risks are small, monitoring of solar proton events by satellite instrumentation allows the occassional exposure to be monitored and evaluated.
When magnetic fields move about in the vicinity of a conductor such as a wire, an electric current is induced into the conductor. This happens on a grand scale during geomagnetic storms. Power companies transmit alternating current to their customers via long transmission lines. The nearly direct currents induced in these lines from geomagnetic storms are harmful to electrical transmission equipment. On March 13, 1989, in Montreal, Quebec, 6 million people were without commercial electric power for 9 hours as a result of a huge geomagnetic storm. Some areas in the northeastern U.S. and in Sweden also lost power. By receiving geomagnetic storm alerts and warnings, power companies can minimize damage and power outages.
Rapidly fluctuating geomagnetic fields can induce currents into pipelines.
During these times, several problems can arise for pipeline engineers. Flow meters in the pipeline can transmit erroneous flow information, and the corrosion rate of the pipeline is dramatically increased. If engineers unwittingly
attempt to balance the current during a geomagnetic storm, corrosion rates may increase even more. Pipeline managers routinely receive alerts and warnings to help them provide an efficient and long-lived system.
While the solar cycle has been nearly regular during the last 300 years, there was a period of 70 years during the 17th and 18th centuries when very few sunspots were seen (even though telescopes were widely used). This drop in sunspot number coincided with the timing of the little ice age in Europe, implying a Sun- to-climate connection. Recently, a more direct link between climate and solar variability has been speculated. Stratospheric winds near the equator blow in different directions, depending on the time in the solar cycle. Studies are under way to determine how this wind reversal affects global circulation patterns and weather.
During proton events, many more energetic particles reach Earth's middle atmosphere. There they cause molecular ionization, creating chemicals that destroy atmospheric ozone and allow increased amounts of harmful solar ultraviolet radiation to reach Earth's surface. A solar proton event in 1982 resulted in a temporary 70% decrease in ozone densities.
Possibly the most closely studied of the variable Sun's biological effects has been the degradation of homing pigeons' navigational abilities during geomagnetic storms. Pigeons and other migratory animals, such as dolphins and whales, have internal biological compasses composed of the mineral magnetite wrapped in bundles of nerve cells. While this probably is not their primarily method of navigation, there have been many pigeon race smashes, a term used when only a small percentage of birds return home from a release site. Because these losses have occurred during geomagnetic storms, pigeon handlers have learned to ask for
geomagnetic alerts and warnings as an aid to scheduling races.
It has been realized and appreciated only in the last few decades that solar flares, CMEs, and magnetic storms affect people and their activities. The list of consequences grows in proportion to our dependence on technological systems. The subtleties of the interactions between Sun and Earth, and between solar particles and delicate instruments, have become factors that affect our well being. Thus there will be continued and intensified need for space environment services to address health, safety, and commercial needs.
Geomagnetic Storms Solar Radiation Storms Radio Blackouts
The NOAA Space Weather Scales were introduced as a way to communicate to the general public the current and future space weather conditions and their possible effects on people and systems.
Many of the Space Environment Center (SEC) products describe the space environment, but few have described the effects that can be experienced as the result of environmental disturbances.
These scales will be useful to users of our products and those who are interested in space weather effects. The scales describe the environmental disturbances for three event types: geomagnetic storms, solar radiation storms, and radio blackouts.
The scales have numbered levels, analogous to hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes that convey severity. They list possible effects at each level. They also show how often such events happen, and give a measure of the intensity of the physical causes.
The NOAA Space Weather Scales tables are shown below.
| Geomagnetic Storms: disturbances in the geomagnetic field caused by gusts in the solar wind that blows by Earth. | |||||
| Solar Radiation Storms: elevated levels of radiation that occur when the numbers of energetic particles increase. | |||||
| Radio Blackouts: disturbances of the ionosphere caused by X-ray emissions from the Sun. |
Women and minorities hardest hit.
 Mount Megantic Magnetic Storm. Plasma from the Sun and debris from a comet both collided with planet Earth last Saturday morning triggering magnetic storms and a meteor shower in a dazzling atmospheric spectacle. The debris stream from comet Swift-Tuttle is anticipated yearly, and many skygazers already planned to watch the peak of the annual Perseids meteor shower in the dark hours of August 11/12. But the simultaneous, widely reported auroras were triggered by the chance arrival of something much less predictable -- a solar coronal mass ejection. This massive bubble of energetic plasma was seen leaving the active Sun's surface on August 9, just in time to travel to Earth and disrupt the planet's magnetic field triggering extensive auroras during the meteor shower's peak! Inspired by the cosmic light show, Sebastien Gauthier photographed the colorful auroral displays above the dramatic dome of the Mount-Megantic Popular Observatory in southern Quebec, Canada. Bright Jupiter and giant star Aldebaran can be seen peering through the shimmering northern lights at the upper right. Image credit: Sebastien Gauthier |
The young and fit couldn't care less, but those who are older, may develop problems. They have to consider the state of magnetosphere in their daily plans. Before, people were glued to weather forecasts. Now they are obsessed with the geomagnetic situation.
But what is a magnetic storm?
Shortly after the launch of the first satellites, mankind discovered the solar wind - a continuous flow of hot plasma from the solar corona. At a distance of 10-12 Earth's radii in the direction of the Sun, where the energy of the solar wind equals that of the Earth's magnetic field, solar wind particles change their direction, and flow around the Earth, forming a comet-like plasma vacuum -- the magnetosphere. The size of its sophisticated but fairly stable structure depends on solar wind pressure, and hence, on solar activity.
The tail of the magnetosphere, which stretches for hundreds of thousands of kilometers in the direction opposite to the Sun, accumulates magnetic energy. From time to time, it is released in explosions, which heat up plasma, and create powerful electric currents (millions of amperes). When such bursts follow one another, the magnetosphere is filled to capacity with hot plasma, while its electric currents embrace the entire near-Earth space. These phenomena are referred to as magnetic storms.
The heart and cardio-vascular system have always been considered the main biological targets of geomagnetic activity. However, the damage inflicted by magnetic storms on human health has been found to be different.
Experts from the Institute of Space Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Institute of Physics of the Earth (RAS), and the Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy have established that the biggest danger emanates from the micro variations of the geomagnetic field, which coincide with the heartbeat.
They occur in about half of all magnetic storms, and are most typical for a prelude to a storm with insignificant changes in the geomagnetic field (mostly affecting high altitudes), and for the recovery phase, when the geomagnetic field is coming back to normal.
Medical statistics for Moscow show that 70% of all micro variations, caused by geomagnetic disturbances, are accompanied by an abnormally high incidence of heart attacks (a growth of about 13%), and blood-strokes (7.5% growth).
The low and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields destabilize the heartbeat, leading to a sudden death or infarction.
Medical experts have finally explained why heart attacks take a heavy toll before a magnetic storm - because micro variations begin 24 hours before the storm.
"We have analyzed numerous data on the heartbeat of cosmonauts from all Soyuz crews, and the majority of missions to the Mir Station and the International Space Station," said Doctor Tamara Breus (Physics and Mathematics) from the Russian Academy of Sciences' Institute of Space Studies, who heads of a group of physics and physicians, studying this problem.
"We subjected 45 cosmonauts to examination during landing and flights of various duration, when they were exposed to geomagnetic disturbance, and then studied the same parameters in a neutral situation,” he said.
"The influence of a magnetic storm was obvious. It was manifest in a change of pulse and blood pressure, vegetative disorders, reduction of heartbeat rate variability and the power of respiratory undulations, and in a more irregular heartbeat pattern. Reactions varied depending on the duration of the flights and an ability of cosmonauts to adapt themselves to the new environment."
In the opinion of Dr. Breus, these effects were a reaction of the vascular tonus and heartbeat rhythm to magnetic storms.
It is perfectly obvious that the response of such a complicated system as the human organism to external factors largely depends on its condition. A magnetic storm is not dangerous for healthy people.
But there are risk groups with unstable biological status. These include people suffering from ischemic disorders or hypertension, or children whose adaptation system is the process of formation. Newly born are particularly at risk.
"We think that simply forecasting storms is counterproductive because people merely get scared as a result," said Dr. Breus. "But steady micro variations are different. We should concentrate on this in forecasting geomagnetic disturbances."
What is the situation with forecasts today?
Owing to the research, conducted under the comprehensive program of Interbol, scientists better understand the nature of cause-and-effect connections in the near and remote space, which helps them develop the methods of space weather forecasts, that is, distance and time variations of space parameters caused by solar activity.
Since 1994, Russia has been implementing its KORONAS program (Comprehensive Orbital Near-Earth Monitoring of Solar Activity) with a series of space vehicles. The third satellite - KORONAS-Foton - will be launched under the program in 2007.
Continuous monitoring of the solar wind is critical for space weather forecasts. The Chibis micro satellites, which are being developed by the Institute of Space Studies, will be working to this end in low-orbit ionosphere in the near future.
Space vehicles of the Institute's another project - Resonans - will do the monitoring in the internal magnetosphere, and the radiation belts. One more satellite - probably the same Chibis - will stay at the top - in the so-called libration point at a distance of about one and a half million kilometers from the Earth.
The gravitational forces of the Earth and the Sun are essentially in balance at this point, and for this reason a space vehicle may "linger on" for a long time near the Sun-Earth line, along which harmful solar corona ejections move, timely reporting the emergence of dangerous solar bursts.
To receive an earlier warning, a space vehicle may be "removed" even further from the Earth. Researchers from the Institute of Space Studies have developed a project called Klipper (not to be confused with a new Russian re-usable piloted spaceship), which provides for placing micro satellites at a distance of 3 to 4 million kilometers from the Earth in the Sunward direction.
This is twice further than the libration point. "Excessive" gravitation of the Sun (compared to the libration point) will be compensated for by the pressure of sunlight on a sail made of fine metallic-like coating on board the satellites. In this way, researchers will be able to stabilize the satellites at a certain point in space, or move them closer to the Sun by handling the reflecting sail.
In other words, they will manipulate the reflecting powers of the material from which it is made. For instance, if a liquid-crystal fiber is installed between a source of light (the Sun in this case), and the sail, it is possible to change the transparency of the fiber by putting it under electric voltage (or removing it).
Its reflecting powers may be changed from mirror reflection to total absorption. This will affect the pressure of light on the sail, causing a change in the direction and speed of the satellite's movement in space.
A project of solar research at a closer distance - Intergeliozond - is designed for a more remote perspective. It will make it possible to see the Sun's polar zones, which are invisible from the Earth.
Magnetic Storms Affect Humans As Well As Telecommunications
SOLAR SCIENCE
Interesting. Any similar data for the U.S.? Maybe Senator Tim Johnson's stroke was precipitated by the solar storm.
From the article:
"They change the blood flow, especially in capillaries, affect blood pressure, and boost adrenalin.
The young and fit couldn't care less, but those who are older, may develop problems. They have to consider the state of magnetosphere in their daily plans.
...Experts from the Institute of Space Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Institute of Physics of the Earth (RAS), and the Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy have established that the biggest danger emanates from the micro variations of the geomagnetic field, which coincide with the heartbeat.
They occur in about half of all magnetic storms, and are most typical for a prelude to a storm with insignificant changes in the geomagnetic field (mostly affecting high altitudes), and for the recovery phase, when the geomagnetic field is coming back to normal.
Medical statistics for Moscow show that 70% of all micro variations, caused by geomagnetic disturbances, are accompanied by an abnormally high incidence of heart attacks (a growth of about 13%), and blood-strokes (7.5% growth).
The low and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields destabilize the heartbeat, leading to a sudden death or infarction.
Medical experts have finally explained why heart attacks take a heavy toll before a magnetic storm - because micro variations begin 24 hours before the storm.
...But there are risk groups with unstable biological status. These include people suffering from ischemic disorders or hypertension, or children whose adaptation system is the process of formation. Newly born are particularly at risk.
"We think that simply forecasting storms is counterproductive because people merely get scared as a result," said Dr. Breus. "But steady micro variations are different. We should concentrate on this in forecasting geomagnetic disturbances."
Magnetic Storms Affect Humans As Well As Telecommunications
CTV.ca - Flare image 'Courtesy of SOHO consortium. SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA.'
That is interesting timing. It would also be interesting to find out exactly when Senator Johnson's stroke-like symptoms (slurred speech, etc.) first began.
More:
"Experts from the Institute of Space Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Institute of Physics of the Earth (RAS), and the Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy have established that the biggest danger emanates from the micro variations of the geomagnetic field, which coincide with the heartbeat.
They occur in about half of all magnetic storms, and are most typical for a prelude to a storm with insignificant changes in the geomagnetic field (mostly affecting high altitudes), and for the recovery phase, when the geomagnetic field is coming back to normal."
Thanks for posting the cool SOHO photo, Norm. Did you see this?
Magnetic Storms Affect Humans As Well As Telecommunications
No, hadn't seen that, Thanks!
Depending on the intensity of the storm, it could literally 'fry' folks..
This is a very cool realistic animation made by NASA which shows the Sun sending a coronal mass ejection to Earth. It is well worth the wait.
Animation of CME impact on Earth's magnetosphere
8.9 MB MPEG file
Courtesy of NASA's IMAGE mission
Coronal Mass Ejections
Large flares are often associated with huge ejections of mass from the Sun, although the association is not clear. These coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are balloon-shaped bursts of solar wind rising above the solar corona, expanding as they climb.
Solar plasma is heated to tens of millions of degrees, and electrons, protons, and heavy nuclei are accelerated to near the speed of light. The super-heated electrons from CMEs move along the magnetic field lines faster than the solar wind can flow.
Rearrangement of the magnetic field, and solar flares may result in the formation of a shock that accelerates particles ahead of the CME loop.
Each CME releases up to 100 billion kg (220 billion lb) of this material, and the speed of the ejection can reach 1000 km/second (2 million mph) in some flares.
Solar flares and CMEs are currently the biggest "explosions" in our solar system, roughly approaching the power in ONE BILLION hydrogen bombs!
Fast CMEs occur more often near the peak of the 11-year solar cycle, and can trigger major disturbances in Earth's magnetosphere, known as space weather.
Coronal Mass Ejections
Placemark and thanks for the ping.
====== placemark ======
You're welcome, Onyx. While you're over here, check out the article I found explaining how health can be affected by Solar storms:
Medical statistics for Moscow show that 70% of all micro variations, caused by geomagnetic disturbances, are accompanied by an abnormally high incidence of heart attacks (a growth of about 13%), and blood-strokes (7.5% growth).
The low and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields destabilize the heartbeat, leading to a sudden death or infarction.
Medical experts have finally explained why heart attacks take a heavy toll before a magnetic storm - because micro variations begin 24 hours before the storm.
#9 Magnetic Storms Affect Humans As Well As Telecommunications
There's a lot of rather wacky science stuff that comes out of Russia that people need to take with Asteroid-sized boulders of salt.
I shall! Thank you so much. Right after he goes to bed, I will indulge!
You're welcome Norm. :-)
The only wacky science stuff I see are your comments on anything.
If you have a legitimate article which debunks the article in question, post it now, or take your negative attitude somewhere else.
National Institute of Health
Biomed Pharmacother. 2004 Oct;58 Suppl 1:S150-87.
Halberg F, Cornelissen G, Regal P, Otsuka K, Wang Z, Katinas GS, Siegelova J, Homolka P, Prikryl P, Chibisov SM, Holley DC, Wendt HW, Bingham C, Palm SL, Sonkowsky RP, Sothern RB, Pales E, Mikulecky M, Tarquini R, Perfetto F, Salti R, Maggioni C, Jozsa R, Konradov AA, Kharlitskaya EV, Revillam M, Wan C, Herold M, Syutkina EV, Masalov AV, Faraone P, Singh RB, Singh RK, Kumar A, Singhs R, Sundaram S, Sarabandi T, Pantaleoni G, Watanabe Y, Kumagai Y, Gubin D, Uezono K, Olah A, Borer K, Kanabrockia EA, Bathina S, Haus E, Hillman D, Schwartzkopff O, Bakken EE, Zeman M.
"Chronoastrobiology: are we at the threshold of a new science? Is there a critical mass for scientific research?"
Halberg Chronobiology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
"...The evidence already mentioned that fluctuations in solar magnetism can influence gross clinical phenomena such as rates of strokes and heart attacks, and related cardiovascular variables such as blood pressure and heart rate, should illustrate the point that the door is open to broad studies of clinical implications.
The medical value of better understanding magnetic fluctuations as sources of variability in human physiology falls into several categories:
1) The design of improved analytical and experimental controls in medical research.All three categories of medical value in turn pertain to the challenges for space science of exploring and colonizing the solar system.
Epidemiological analyses require that the multiple sources causing variability in physiological functions and clinical phenomena be identified and understood as thoroughly as possible, in order to estimate systematic alterations of any one variable.
2) Preventive medicine and the individual patients'care. There are no flat 'baselines', only reference chronomes. Magnetic fluctuations can be shown statistically to exacerbate health problems in some cases.
The next step should be to determine whether vulnerable individuals can be identified by individual monitoring.
Such vulnerable patients may then discover that they have the option to avoid circumstances associated with anxiety during solar storms, and/or pay special attention to their medication or other treatments.
Prehabilitation by self-help can hopefully complement and eventually replace much costly rehabilitation.
3) Basic understanding of human physiological mechanisms. The chronomic organization of physiology implies a much more subtle dynamic integration of functions than is generally appreciated.
The earth's native magnetic field acts like an enormous umbrella that offers considerable protection on the surface from harsh solar winds of charged particles and magnetic fluxes.
The umbrella becomes weaker with distance from the earth and will offer little protection for humans, other animals, and plants in colonies on the surface of the moon or beyond.
Thus it is important before more distant colonization is planned or implemented to better understand those magnetism-related biological- solar interactions that now can be studied conveniently on earth.
NIH PubMed
Thank you for the ping bd476.
This is quite amazing.
GOOD stuff.
Your work is much appreciated.
Thanks again for the ping.
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