ANCIENT WARFARE

The oldest remaining documentation of military campaigns come from the Middle East
where the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hittites, and Persians were the main combatants.
Read about the rise of standing armies and how battles were fought 4000 years ago.

Continuation of Part I:

Ancient Egyptian Military

Fortresses

Unless an enemy was willing to besiege a stronghold until it surrendered or could surprise its garrison and subdue it, he had to conquer it by forcing the gates, by scaling the walls or by breaching them. Since earliest times measures were taken to prevent these possibilities.

The walls were, if not very strong at least of massive thickness and higher than the portable ladders that could be built. The gates were specially protected. Wall tops have decayed completely, but according to drawings there were cornices all around behind which the defenders could take cover. The main rampart was surrounded by an outer wall of lesser height.

The Old Kingdom

	A fortress at Abydos, the funerary enclosure of Khasekhemwy, was built to protect the temple of Osiris. It was surrounded by a massive inner wall made of mud bricks, about twelve metres high, six metres thick at the base, about five metres wide at the top, and a five metre tall outer wall with a gap of about three metres between them. This arrangement prevented sappers from attacking the foot of the main wall under cover of portable shelters. Apart from the gates and posterns there were no openings in the walls such as loopholes, machicolations or the like. The main entrance was near the north eastern corner, with further gates in the south and east walls. The gap in the outer wall could be closed with wooden doors. Behind this gate there was a courtyard with another narrow passage leading into a further court surrounded by the main and two retaining walls. One had to pass through a sally-port to gain access to the interior.

This layout gave the defenders the advantage of height for a considerable amount of time. The attackers could be showered with arrows and other projectiles without being able to respond in kind. The entrance in the eastern wall had similar characteristics: narrow passages to slow down the attackers, forced changes in the direction in which they had to proceed, and courtyards surrounded by walls, which were manned by archers.

The Middle Kingdom

By this time the rulers were certainly aware of the need to control the flow of people into their country, be it from the south, the west or the east.

Asiatics who roam the land.
Foes have risen in the East,
Asiatics have come down to Egypt.
The fictional 'Prophesies of Neferti', 11/12th dynasty

The Eastern Border

Amenemhet I began the construction of the Wall of the Prince, a string of fortresses
on the eastern border of the Delta, taking advantage of the watery obstacles of the region.

One will build the Walls-of-the-Ruler,
To bar Asiatics from entering Egypt;
They shall beg water as supplicants,
So as to let their cattle drink.
Then Order will return to its seat,
While Chaos is driven away.
'Prophesies of Neferti', 11/12th dynasty

And in the fictional account of Sinuhe

I came up to the Wall of the Ruler, made to oppose the Asiatics and crush the Sand-Crossers. I took a crouching position in a bush for fear lest watchmen upon the wall where their day's [duty] was might see me.
The Tale of Sinuhe

These fortifications were more or less well defended and maintained over the centuries. Under the coregency of Amenemhet II and Senusret II, the official Hapu had the following inscription made

Made in the year 3, under the majesty of Horus: Seshmutowe (Senusret II), corresponding to the year 35 under the majesty of Horus: Hekenemmat (Amenemhet II), The [....], Hapu came, in order to make an inspections in the fortress of Wawat
James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part One, § 616

During the 2nd Intermediate Period they were probably largely abandoned, but the New Kingdom saw their restoration. Under Seti I there seems to have existed a bridge at Sile spanning a crocodile infested waterway.

The Southern Border

	Senusret III fortified the southern border of Egypt after his conquest of Nubia by building strongholds on either side of the Nile close to the second cataract.

At Semna only the side facing the Nile had any natural protection. The eastern wall, built on top of a rocky slope, was only 15 metres high, while in the other directions the walls reached heights of about 25 metres with ramparts 9 metres thick at ground level jutting out from the main wall.

At Kumma on the right bank advantage was taken of a natural hillock of about 60 metres width with steep rocky faces. The inner and outer walls follow the contour of the knoll.

The entrance is a passage between two ramparts close to each other and thus easily protected by crossfire. The outer wall is at four metres distance from the inner wall for most of its trajectory, apart from two bastion-like salients. The walls were built of mud bricks and reinforced with horizontal wooden beams. The lower part was practically perpendicular, while the upper half was at an angle of twenty degrees to the vertical. The floor inside the wall was raised almost to the level of the top of the ramparts. The outer drystone wall rose to a height of two to three metres and had a gap in its northern side opposite the main gate of the fortress. All these precautions were to no avail: a breach in the southern wall between the two ramparts closest to the river indicates that the fortification was conquered.

Buhen was the main garrison town among these fortresses protecting the Nubian frontier, a few tens of kilometres north of Semna and Kumma, and a string of further forts (Mirgissa just south of the 2nd cataract, Dabenarti, Askut, Shalfak, Uronarti) in between. It had two concentric rings of ramparts, the Egyptian officials living inside the inner walls and the mercenary troops, which were quite possibly native, occupying the outer circle. With its population of several thousand inhabitants it was the administrative centre of the region. It was abandoned by the Egyptians during the 20th dynasty.

The New Kingdom


Little changed over the centuries as far as weapon and fortification techniques were concerned until the Egyptians came into contact with the far more warlike Asiatics. During their campaigns in Canaan and Retenu they encountered fortified places built of stone, with towers and sometimes even water filled moats.
These cities and fortresses easily withstood traditional Egyptian siege techniques. Megiddo for instance fell to Thutmose only after it was beleaguered for seven months.
During the 19th dynasty a number of Canaan-style stone fortresses were erected along the Egyptian eastern frontier. They were called by their Semitic name magadilu (In Hebrew for instance migdal means tower; cf. the biblical Migdol [Jer. 44:1; 46:14] ).

No strongholds of this era remain, but the temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu shows a number of features characteristic of New Kingdom fortification. A crenellated outer stone wall 4 metres high protects the whole eastern side. The entrance which passes through a massive bastion, is slightly wider than a metre and flanked by two guardrooms.
The two-towered migdol is 22 metres high, its front 25 metres wide. It surrounds and controls a courtyard which one has to cross in order to enter the temple. Its walls have windows and loopholes, high enough to be inaccessible to the enemy on the ground. There was also a parapet along the edge of the flat roof.

Its foundation wall is five metres high and has a slight inclination. The reason for this is twofold: the wall becomes less vulnerable to sapping and the projectiles dropped from above bounce off the inclined stone wall, changing their direction and hurtling on a horizontal trajectory into the massed enemies, which increases their chance of hitting someone.

At strategic places large depots were built. At Tharu (possibly identical with Sile) on the eastern border these were rectangular structures inside the citadel, covered an area of 12,000 m², had three metre thick mud-brick walls and opened on an adjacent yard.

Siege warfare

Some recorded sieges were prolonged affairs going on for months and even years, and a few of them are important markers in Egyptian history:

The successful siege of Hatwaret(Avaris) by Ahmose I signalled the end of the Hyksos presence in Egypt.
The three year siege and taking of Sharuhen in southern Canaan opened the path to start to hegemony over the Levant.
With the fall of Megido after a seven month siege Canaan came under direct control of the pharaohs.

Thutmose III: Megiddo ca. 1482 BCE


Megiddo lay in the plain of Yizreel, controlling the east-west traffic from the central coastal plains of Canaan to the Lake of Tiberias region and the north-south routes between Akka and the Beth Shean area. The town was seemingly quite sizable, having between 5000 and 10,000 inhabitants. The excavations of the tell of Megiddo uncovered ramparts dating to the Israelite period (half a millennium after Thutmose) of 800 metres length, encompassing an area of about 50,000 m². The city walls were built of bricks and had a thickness of up to ten metres during the early Bronze Age and a height of several storeys, but the whole of Canaan had declined since then, and Thutmose had to overcome a wall of a mere 5 metres thickness and correspondingly smaller height.

The inhabitants of Canaanite cities depended upon wells for their water supply. These were generally at the foot of the growing tells, and thus outside the city walls. The wells were consequently often covered up and tunnels were excavated to make them accessible from the city interior. Most Canaanite cities had only one gate, which had to be wide enough for the passage of chariots and carts. During the battle of Megido the city gate was barred and the walls were manned. When the fleeing charioteers reached the city, the defenders refused to open the gate, preventing the pursuing Egyptian chariotry from gaining access. The Canaanites had to abandon their chariots and were pulled up the city walls. The Egyptian chronicler thought that if only the army of his majesty had not given their heart to plundering the things of the enemy, they would have captured Megiddo at this moment. This may have been wishful thinking. The defenders had seemingly not panicked. There must have been a certain amount of confusion which could have been exploited by the attackers in order to organize an immediate assault by the infantry carrying the necessary equipment such as ladders, on condition that the shock troops had been deployed near-by previously. Whatever the reasons for the failure to storm the town immediately, an assault was deemed unnecessary later on despite the importance of the beleagered rulers. Then spake his majesty on hearing the words of his army, saying: "Had ye captured this city afterward, behold, I would have given Re this day; because every chief of every country that has revolted is within it; and because it is the capture of a thousand cities, this capture of Megiddo. Capture ye mightily, mightily." James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part II § 432 The Egyptians prepared for a prolonged siege. Most Canaanite leaders were either captured, killed on the battlefield, or managed to escape into Megiddo. The population of the land was left leaderless and did not constitute a danger to a beleagering army. The defenders could not expect any outside intervention. Their water supply was assured; but it was just a question of time before the food reserves were exhausted and the city had to surrender. His majesty commanded the officers of the troops to go, assigning to each his place. They measured this city, surrounding it with an inclosure, walled about with green timber of all their pleasant trees. His majesty himself was upon the fortification east of this city, inspecting. It was walled about with its thick wall. Its name was made: "Menkheperre Thutmose III-is-the-Surrounder-of-the-Asiatics." People were stationed to watch over the tent of his majesty; to whom it was said: "Steady of heart! Watch." His majesty commanded, saying: "Let not one among them come forth outside, beyond this wall, except to come out in order to knock at the other door of their fortification." Now, all that his majesty did to this city, to that wretched foe and his wretched army, was recorded on each day by its the day's name. Then it was recorded upon a roll of leather in the temple of Amon this day. James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part II § 433

	After seven months of siege the Canaanites surrendered, and the whole region came under the hegemony of the Egyptians. There was little direct rule and Thutmose's policy of generally letting the local kings rule in his name was continued throughout much of the New Kingdom. Behold, the chiefs of this country came to render their portions, to do obeisance to the fame of his majesty, to crave breath for their nostrils, because of the greatness of his power, because of the might of the fame of his majesty the country came to his fame, bearing their gifts, consisting of silver, gold, lapis lazuli, malachite; bringing clean grain, wine, large cattle, and small cattle for the army of his majesty. Each of the Kode among them bore the tribute southward. Behold, his majesty appointed the chiefs anew. James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part II § 434

Gaza, the town closest to their own country, was the centre of the Egyptians' power in Canaan, which suggests that - apart from having to pay tribute - the local kingdoms served mostly as buffer-states between Egypt and a succession of warlike neighbours in the north, Mitanni, Hatti and later, after the decline of Egyptian power in the Levant, Assyria.

Ramses II: Dapur ca. 1296 BCE


In the years following the battle of Kadesh the whole of Canaan was in turmoil. With Hittite support the local rulers defied the Egyptians. Ramses II set out to suppress them, and he was pressed enough not to waste time with prolonged sieges. Askalon, close to Egyptian border was stormed. A relief at Karnak shows soldiers scaling the walls with the help of ladders and an officer trying to break down the city gate with an axe. The wretched city which his majesty captured, when it rebelled, Askalon. It (the city) says: "It is joy to be subject to thee, and delight to cross thy boundaries. Take thou the heritage, that we may speak of thy valor in all unknown countries. James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part III § 355 In the eighth year of his reign Ramses was reconquering the Galilee. Fortified towns like Bethanath, Merom and Dapur (probably Tabor) were captured. It seems that some Hittites were stationed at Dapur.

Said the vanquished of Kheta in praising the Good God: "Give to us the breath that thou givest, O good ruler. Lo, we are under thy sandals; thy terror, it has penetrated the land of Kheta. Its chief is fallen because of thy fame; we are like herds of horses, when the fierce-eyed lion attacks them." James Henry Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt Part III § 359

Piye: Hermopolis ca. 715 BCE

By the time the Ethiopians made their incursions into Egypt, walls, siege tactics and equipment had undergone changes, mostly influenced by developments in the Asiatic East. Early shelters protecting sappers armed with poles trying to breach mud-brick ramparts gave way to battering rams.

Enclosures were still erected, preventing surprise sorties. Raised platforms from which the town could be showered with missiles, decreased the advantage the defenders had on their tall ramparts.

Behold, [he] besieges Heracleopolis, he has completely invested it, not letting comers-out come out, and not letting goers-in go in, fighting every day. He measured it off in its whole circuit, every prince knows his wall; he stations every man of the princes and rulers of walled towns over his respective portion.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents.
(Chicago: 1906), Part IV § 818
Then they fought against Tetehen, great in might. They found it filled with soldiers, with every valiant man of the Northland. Then the battering-ram was employed against it, its wall was overthrown, and a great slaughter was made among them. of unknown number; also the son of the chief of Me, Tefnakhte. Then they sent to his majesty concerning it, (but) his heart was not satisfied therewith.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents.
(Chicago: 1906), Part IV § 838
He set up for himself the camp on the southwest of Hermopolis (Hmnw) and besieged it daily. An embankment was made, to inclose the wall; a tower was raised to elevate the archers while shooting, and the slingers while slinging stones, and slaying people among them daily.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents.
(Chicago: 1906), Part IV § 842

While some of the Lower Egyptian towns were besieged, Piye decided against this in the case of Memphis after Tefnakht had gone north to raise troops for the defense of the city. The building of a causeway was proposed, as was the erection of siege towers, but Piye took advantage of the fact that the harbour was not as well defended nor the river wall as well manned as the huge ramparts facing north. The ships captured, he seems to have used them for scaling the city wall facing the Nile.

When day broke, at early morning, his majesty reached Memphis. When he landed on the north of it, he found that the water had approached to the walls, the ships mooring at [the walls of] Memphis. Then his majesty saw it was strong, and that the wall was raised by a new rampart, and battlements manned with mighty men. There was found no way of attacking it. Every man told his opinion among the army of his majesty, according to every rule of war. Every man said; "Let us besiege [it] .... ; lo, its troops are numerous." Others said: "Let a causeway be made against it, let us elevate the ground to its walls. Let us bind together a tower; let us erect masts and make the spars into a bridge to it. We will divide it on this (plan) on every side of it, on the high ground and ..... on the north of it, in order to elevate the ground at its walls, that we may find a way for our feet.
Then his majesty was enraged against it like a panther; he said: "I swear, as Re loves me, as my father, Amon [who fashioned me], favors me, this shall befall it, according to the command of Amon. This is what men say: '[The Northland] and the nomes of the South, they opened to him from afar, they did not set Amon in their heart, they knew not what he commanded. He (i.e. Amon) made him (i.e. Piankhi) to show forth his fame, to cause his might to be seen.' I will take it like a flood of water. I have commanded .... ..... ..... ."
His majesty himself came to line up the ships, as many as there were. His majesty commanded his army (saying): "Forward against it! Mount the walls! Penetrate the houses over the river. If one of you gets through upon the wall, let him not halt before it, [so that] the (hostile) troops may not repulse you. It were vile that we should close up the South, should land [in] the North and lay siege in 'Balance of the Two Lands'."
Then Memphis was taken as (by) a flood of water, a multitude of people were slain therein, and brought as living captives to the place where his majesty was.
The Piankhi Stela James Henry Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents. (Chicago: 1906), Part IV §§ 861 ff

Next Tuesday, the continuation of Part I: Ancient Egpytian Military
The Palestine Campaign of Seti I
The Battle of Kadesh

On This Day In History

Birthdates which occurred on July 22:
1478 Philip I (the Handsome) 1st Habsburg king of Spain (1506)
1822 Gregor Mendel monk/geneticist, discoverer of the laws of heredity
1844 Rev William Archibald Spooner London, invented "spoonerisms"
1849 Emma Lazarus poet ("The New Colossus"-base of Statue of Liberty)
1882 Edward Hopper US painter (House by the Railroad)
1887 Gustav Hertz German quantum physicist (Nobel 1925)
1888 Raymond Chandler Chic, mystery writer (The Long Goodbye)
1890 Rose Kennedy mom of JFK, RFK & Ted
1892 Arthur Seyss-Inquart Austrian chancellor (1930s)
1895 Hans Rosbaud Graz Austria, conductor (Tonhalle Orch Zrich)
1898 Alexander Calder sculptor (mobiles, stabiles)
1898 Stephen Vincent Ben‚t US, writer (The Devil & Daniel Webster)
1901 Charles Weidman Nebraska, modern dancer/choreographer (Candide)
1908 Amy Vanderbilt authority on etiquette (Complete Book of Etiquette)
1913 Lucia Albanese soprano (NY Met Opera)
1921 William Roth (Sen-R-Del)
1923 Robert Dole (Sen-R-Ks)
1924 Margaret Whiting Detroit, singer (Kreisler Bandstand, Strauss Family)
1927 George Hunter South Africa, light heavyweight boxer (Oly-gold-1948)
1928 Orson Bean actor/comedian (I've Got a Secret, To Tell the Truth)
1930 Marcia Henderson Andover Mass, actress (Kathleen-Aldrich Family)
1930 Yuri P Artyukhin cosmonaut (Soyuz 14)
1932 Oscar de la Renta Dom Rep, designer (Coty Hall of Fame-1973)
1933 Chuck Cassey Chicago, choral director (Jimmy Dean Show)
1939 Terence Stamp England, actor (The Collector, Alien Nations)
1940 Alex Trebek Sudbury Ontario, TV game host (High Rollers, Jeopardy)
1940 Stan Ross NYC, actor (New Bill Cosby Show)
1940 Yuriy Klimov USSR, team handball (Olympic-gold-1976)
1941 George Clinton rocker (Testify, Funkadelics)
1941 Susie Maxwell Berning golfer (US Women's Open 1968,72,73)
1941 Thomas Wayne rocker (Tragedy)
1944 Estelle Bennett NYC, vocalist (Ronettes-Be My Baby)
1944 Guich Koock Austin Tx, actor (Harley Puckett-Carter Country)
1944 Sparky Lyle relief pitcher (NY Yankees, Cy Young)
1945 Bobby Sherman actor/singer (Seattle)
1947 Albert Brooks LA Calif, comedian (Broadcast News, Lost in America)
1947 Don Henley drummer (Eagles-Desparado)
1949 Lasse Viren Finland, 5K/10K runner (Olympic-gold-1972, 76)
1952 Madeleine Collinson Malta, twin playmate (Oct, 1970)
1952 Mary Collinson Malta, twin playmate (Oct, 1970)
1955 Willem Dafoe actor (Platoon, Roadhouse 66, Mississippi Burning)
1956 Michael Spinks US, middleweight boxer (Olympic-gold-1976)
1957 Dave Steib pitcher (Toronto Blue Jays)
1958 Sandra Elizabeth Greenberg Spokane Wash, playmate (June, 1987)
1963 Joanna Going actress (Another World)
1965 Patrick Laborteaux LA Calif, actor (Albert-Little House on Prairie)
1967 Pat Badger heavy metal bassist (Extreme-More Than Words)
1971 Charlotte Gainsbourg London England, actress (The Little Thief)

Deaths which occurred on July 22:
1461 Charles VII king of France (1422-61), dies at 58
1802 Marie-Fran‡ois-Xavier Bichat a founder of histology, dies
1826 Giuseppe Piazzi discoverer of 1st asteroid, dies
1870 Josef Strauss, composer, dies at 42
1934 John Dillinger shot dead at Biograph Theater in Chicago
1953 Cy Kendall actor (Mysteries of Chinatown), dies at 55
1955 Joseph Foley actor (Mr Peepers), dies at 45
1967 Carl Sandburg poet (Abraham Lincoln: The Prarie Years), dies at 89
1979 Hope Summers actress (Clara-Andy Griffith Show), dies at 78
1988 Luigi Lucioni Italian, landscape painter (opera stars), dies at 87

Reported: MISSING in ACTION
1966 WELLS ROBERT J. PHILADELPHIA PA.
1972 PAIGE GORDON C. LOS ALTOS CA
[03/29/73 RELEASED BY DRV, ALIVE IN 98]

POW / MIA Data & Bios supplied by the P.O.W. NETWORK. Skidmore, MO. USA.

On this day...
260 St Dionysius begins his reign as Catholic Pope
1298 English defeat Scots at Battle of Falkirk
1306 King Phillip the Fair orders expulsion of Jews from France
1587 2nd English colony established on Roanoke Island off NC
1686 City of Albany, NY chartered
1775 George Washington takes command of the troops
1796 Cleveland, Ohio, founded by Gen Moses Cleaveland
1812 Duke of Wellington defeats French at Battle of Salamanca, Spain
1854 J R Hind discovers asteroid #30 Urania
1864 Battle of Atlanta-Hood attacks Sherman & suffers terrible losses
1898 Belgica crew see 1st sunrise in 1600 hrs-1st to endure Antarct winter
1905 Phila Athletic's Weldon Henley no-hits St Louis Browns, 6-0
1908 W Lorenz discovers asteroid #665 Sabine
1912 5th Olympic games in Stockholm closes
1916 A bomb went off during a Preparedness Day parade in SF killing 10
1917 Alexander Kerensky becomes Russian PM
1917 M Wolf discovers asteroids #879 Ricarda, #880 Herba & #881 Athene
1918 Lightning kills 504 sheep in Utah's Wasatch National Park
1923 Walter Johnson becomes the 1st to strikeout 3,000
1925 Yankees purchase infielder Leo Durocher
1926 105ø F (41ø C), Waterbury, Connecticut (state record)
1926 108ø F (42ø C), Troy, New York (state record)
1926 Cin Red Curt Walker ties record of 2 triples in an inning
1930 G Neujmin discovers asteroid #1306 Scythia
1930 H Van Gent discovers asteroids #1666 van Gent, #1752 van Herk & #1945 Wesselink
1933 Caterina Jarboro sings "Aida," NYC-1st negro prima donna in US
1933 Wiley Post completes 1st round-the-world solo flight
1934 - John Dillinger the first person to receive the FBI's appellation of "Public Enemy No. 1" was killed by federal agents as he left Chicago's Biograph movie theater.
1935 C Jackson discovers asteroids #1359 Prieska & #1360 Tarka
1935 Lester Walton appointed minister to Liberia
1936 Phillies John Moore hits 3 consecutive HRs
1937 Senate rejects FDR proposal to enlarge Supreme Court
1939 1st black woman judge (Jane Matilda Bolin-NYC)
1942 Gasoline rationing begins in US during WW II
1943 Allied forces captured Palermo, Sicily
1944 Soviets set up Polish Committee of National Liberation
1946 Estelle Bennett, rocker (The Ronettes)
1947 -8ø F (-13ø C), Charlotte Pass, NSW (Australian record)
1950 King Leopold, after 6 years in exile, returns to Belgium
1952 Polish constitution adopted (National Day)
1955 1st VP to preside over cabinet meeting-R Nixon
1955 Phillies longest win streak since 1892 hits 11
1962 1st US Venus probe, Mariner 1, fails at lift-off
1962 Chic White Sox Floyd Robinson goes 6 for 6 (all singles)
1963 Sonny Liston KOs Floyd Patterson to retain heavywieght championship
1963 The Beatles release "Introducing the Beatles"
1964 Steve Ballesteros wins the Britsh Golf Open
1967 Atlanta Braves use a record 5 pitchers in the 9th inning
1967 Jimi Hendrix quits as opening act of the Monkees' tour
1969 Aretha Franklin arrested for disturbing the peace in Detroit
1969 USSR launches Sputnik 50 & Molniya 1-12 communications satellite
1972 27.53 cm (10.84") of rainfall, Fort Ripley, Mn (state 24-hr record)
1972 Venera 8 makes soft landing on Venus
1973 Sue Berning wins her 3rd US Golf Open championship
1975 House of Reps votes to restore citizenship to Gen Robert E Lee
1981 Turkish terrorist Mehmet Ali Agca sentenced in a Rome to life
1982 Academic Text Processing Service established in Seattle
1983 -128ø F (-89ø C) recorded, Vostok, Antarctica (world record)
1983 Dick Smith makes 1st solo helicopter flight around the world
1983 Poland's PM Januzelski lifts martial law
1984 Kathy Whitworth wins a record 85th pro golf tournament
1986 House of Reps impeaches Judge Harry E Claiborne on tax evasion
1987 Said Aouita of Morroco sets the 5k record (12:58.39) in Rome
1987 Soyuz TM-3 launched with 3 cosmonauts (1 Syrian)
1987 US began escorting re-flagged Kuwaiti tankers in Persian Gulf
1988 500 US scientists pledge to boycott Pentagon germ-warfare research
1990 Greg Lemond of US wins bicycling's 3rd tour de France
1990 Nick Faldo of England wins the British Open Golf championship
1991 Jeffrey Dahmer confesses to killing 17 males in 1978
1994 OJ Simpson pleads "Absolutely 100% Not Guilty" of murder
1994 A federal judge ordered The Citadel, a state-financed military college in Charleston, S.C., to open its doors to women.
1995 Susan Smith, the mother who had confessed to drowning her two young sons by allowing her car
to roll into a lake with the boys locked inside, was convicted by a jury in Union, S.C., of first-degree murder and sentenced to life in prison.

Holidays
Note: Some Holidays are only applicable on a given "day of the week"

Pakistan : Bank Holiday
Poland : Liberation Day (1944)
Swaziland : King's Birthday
Virgin Islands : Hurricane Supplication Day - - - - - ( Monday )

Religious Observances
RC, Ang, Luth : Memorial of St Mary Magdalen, penitent

Religious History
1620 A small congregation of English Separatists, led by John Robinson, began theiremigration to the New World. Today, this historic group of religious refugees has come tobe known as the 'Pilgrims.'
1836 Birth of Emily E. S. Elliott, Anglican missions supporter and hymnwriter. Nieceof Charlotte Elliott (who wrote the hymn 'Just As I Am'), Emily penned the words to the hymn'Thou Didst Leave Thy Throne.'
1847 The first large company of Mormon immigrants entered the Salt Lake Valley, in whatwas still Mexican territory. Soon after, Mormon leader Brigham Young founded Salt Lake City,Utah.
1865 Birth of Peter P. Bilhorn, sacred composer. He produced over 1,400 hymns in hislife, including 'I Will Sing the Wondrous Story' and 'Sweet Peace, The Gift of God's Love.'
1981 Turkish terrorist Mehmet Ali Agca, 23, was sentenced to life imprisonment for hisattempted assassination of Pope John Paul II in May of this year.

Source: William D. Blake. ALMANAC OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1987.

Thought for the day :
" The best way to cheer yourself is to try to cheer someone else up. "

Today's 'You Might Be A Redneck If'Joke...
"You consider Outdoor Life deep reading."

Murphy's Law of the Day...
"Experience is something you don't get until just after you need it."

Cliff Clavin says..Armored knights raised their visors to identify themselves when they rode past their king. This custom has become the modern military salute.

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Individuals and corporations can learn more about how to get involved and support “Operation USO Care Package” through donations of product or funds, by calling 866-USO-GIVE.

HOW CAN YOU SUPPORT OPERATION USO CARE PACKAGE?

Individuals may donate $25, which goes toward sponsorship of an “Operation USO Care Package.” Personal greetings may be forwarded to our post office box with the contribution. USO will transcribe the message onto an official “Operation USO Care Package” postcard, available for preview here.
Corporations may make a tax-deductible financial donation to support “Operation USO Care Package.” A $25 donation goes toward sponsorship of one care package. Each care package will recognize corporate sponsors.
Corporations may donate items listed on the “Service Members’ Wish List” to USO-Metro, many of which may be branded with your corporate logo. These items must be sent in bulk from the manufacturer. Please call (703) 696-2628 for advance coordination of deliveries.
Corporations may delegate an employee to serve as its “Operation USO Care Package” liaison. The liaison will communicate your corporate involvement and enlist employees to participate. Employee participants could sponsor an individual care package, which would include their personal message. Corporations interested in participating in this option or willing to match their employees’ support should call (703) 696-2628 for further information.

Please send all checks and personal greetings for “Operation USO Care Package” to:
USO-Operation USO Care Package
C/O Pentagon Federal Credit Union
P.O. Box 19221
Alexandria, VA 22320-9998

Due to the threat of anthrax following September 11, DoD suspended its practice of forwarding personal care packages and correspondence by the American public to “Any Service Member.” In its place, USO created a care package program. Through sponsorship of an “Operation USO Care Package,” an individual’s personal greeting will be transcribed onto an official postcard and included in the care package going to a service member.

MAKE YOUR DONATION NOW!

SERVICE MEMBERS' WISH LIST
Travel Size Personal Items*	Miscellaneous Items*
Disposable Razors	Playing Cards and Board Games
Toothbrushes	Compact Discs
Toothpaste	Current Movies on DVD
Tissues	Crossword Puzzle Books
Shampoo/Conditioner	Disposable Cameras
Shower Gel	Pre-paid Global Calling Cards
Sunscreen	Stationery and Journals
Baby Wipes	Sunglasses
Hand Lotion	Small Footballs, Softballs
Lip Balm	CD/DVD Cases with Zipper
Cotton Swabs	Individually Wrapped Snack Items
Sewing Kits	Shoe Polish Kits
*Many of these items may be imprinted with your corporate logo and /or the USO logo.

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