Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History Volume 4 (2nd Century) (Ecumenical)

Here is a lengthy overview of church government in the first and second century. I can cover some later developments if necessary, but the late second and early third centuries seemed to be the transitional period from a two-fold ministry to a three-fold ministry. From this point onward, bishops eventually changed from basically a head bishop in a college of elders within a single congregation, to a bishop over a small area, to one over a larger area, eventually being termed "metropolitans" and "archbishops" and eventually "universal bishop" or "Pope"

I hope that you have a great New Year as well. (I hope that this info posts OK.)

Church Government in the New Testament
1. There was at least one temporary office mentioned in the New Testament that was limited to the apostolic age--the office of "apostle". There were also at least three "less official" offices that perhaps do not warrant the title of "office". One of these was temporary in nature ("prophet"), and two were permanent ("evangelist" and "teacher"). (vid. Ephesians 4:11; etc.)
2. There are only two permanent and "official" church offices mentioned in the New Testament:
  1. Deacons (I Timothy 3:8,10,12,13; Philippians 1:1)
  2. Elders
    1. Names used in the New Testament to describe the office of an elder:
      1. Greek: "presbuteros"; English: "elder", "presbyter"
        a) "elder" (Titus 1:5; Acts 11:30; 14:23; 15:2,4,6,22,23; 16:4; 20:17; 21:18; I Timothy 4:14; 5:17,19; James 5:14; I Peter 5:1;
        II John 1; III John 1)
        b) "presbyter" (I Timothy 4:14 [in the King James Version])
        
        [Note: "Elder" and "presbyter" are different translations of the same Greek word, "presbuteros".]
      2. Greek: "episkopos"; English: "bishop", "overseer"
        a) "bishop" (Philippians 1:1; I Timothy 3:1,2; Titus 1:7 [cf. I Timothy 3:1; Acts 1:20])
        b) "overseer" (Acts 20:28)
        
        [Note: "Bishop" and "overseer" are different translations of the same Greek word, "episkopos".]
      3. Greek: "poimen"; English: "pastor", "shepherd"
        a) "pastor" (Ephesians 4:11)
        b) "shepherd" (The noun form is not found in most of the better translations in reference to elders. It is found in Ephesians 4:11
        in some versions. It may be implied from I Peter 5:2-4. The verb form--translated "feed", "rule" or "tend"--is found in
        reference to the duties of elders in Acts 20:28 and I Peter 5:2.)
        
        [Note: "Pastor" and "shepherd" are different translations of the same Greek word, "poimen".]
      4. other words describing elders:
        a) Greek: "proistemi"; English: "be over", "rule", "preside", "manage", "govern" (I Timothy 5:17; cf. I Thessalonians 5:12). By
            extension, one who does this would be a "ruler", "president", "manager", "governor", etc.
        b) Greek: "hegeomai"; English: "lead", "have the rule over", "be chief", "govern", "preside" (Hebrews 13:17,24; cf. v.7). By
            extension, one who does this would be a "leader" or "leading man", "ruler", "chief", "governor", "president", etc. [Note:
            Elders are not specifically mentioned in Hebrews 13, but are believed by many commentators to be the ones being referred to
            in verses 17 and 24.]
    2. In the New Testament, "elder" and "bishop" refer to the same office.
      1. Titus 1:5,7 ("Elder" and "bishop" are used interchangeably.)
      2. Acts 20:17,28 (Again, "elder" and "bishop" are used to refer to the same persons.)
      3. I Peter 5:1,2 (In some ancient manuscripts, "exercising the oversight" {in Greek: "episkopountes"} is listed as one of the duties of elders.)
      4. Philippians 1:1; I Timothy 3:1-13 (In each of these references, bishops and deacons are mentioned but elders are not. If this were a threefold ministry, as in later centuries, one would not expect the first and third offices to be mentioned and the second to not be. This lends further support to the equation of the offices of bishop and elder.)
    3. Plurality in every place:
      1. Acts 14:23; Titus 1:5; etc.
      2. Even in smaller towns like Philippi, more than one elder or bishop is mentioned (Philippians 1:1).
      3. We never read of a congregation in the New Testament having only one elder or bishop. In the New Testament, the phrase "the bishop" is used only in the generic sense (i.e., in referring to the office), and is usually translated with the indefinite article in most English translations (vid. I Timothy 3:2; Titus 1:7).
Evolution of church government
1. New Testament letters (A.D. 50-65)
  1. There are only two permanent and "official" offices in the church: "deacon" and "elder"/"bishop".
  2. The terms "elder" and "bishop" refer to the same office. (see above: I.B.2.b)
  3. There is a plurality of elders in every place. (see above: I.B.2.c)
2. Clement of Rome (A.D. 96)
  1. Bishops and deacons are still the standard practice: "And as they (the apostles) went through the territories and townships preaching, they appointed their first converts--after testing them by the Spirit--to be bishops and deacons for the believers of the future." ---I Clement 42
  2. Bishops and elders are still the same office: "It will undoubtedly be no light offence on our part, if we take their bishopric away from men who have been performing its duties with this impeccable devotion. How happy these elders must be who have already passed away, with a lifetime of fruitfulness behind them." ---I Clement 44
  3. Other passages in I Clement which mention elders or bishops:
    1. "...being obedient to those who had the rule over you, and giving all fitting honour to the elders among you." ---I Clement 1
    2. "...let us esteem those who have the rule over us; let us honour the elders." ---I Clement 21
    3. "...church of the Corinthians...its elders." ---I Clement 47
    4. "...let the flock of Christ live on terms of peace with the elders." ---I Clement 54
    5. "...submit yourselves to the elders..." ---I Clement 57
    [Note: I Clement is the earliest extra-Biblical Christian document in existence to which we may assign a definite date, and probably the earliest even including those to whom a definite date cannot be assigned.]
3. Ignatius of Antioch (ca. A.D. 107-115)
  1. The writings of Ignatius contain the only very early references to a threefold ministry (bishop, elders, deacons); bishops and elders are, for the first time, regarded as separate offices.
    1. "I exhort you that ye study to do all things with a divine concord: the bishop presiding in the place of God, and presbyters in the place of the college of the apostles, and the deacons, most dear to me, being entrusted with the ministry of Jesus Christ." ---Ignatius to the Magnesians, 6
    2. "It becomes you to be in harmony with the mind of the bishop, as also you do. For your most estimable presbytery, worthy of God, is fitted to the bishop as the strings are to the harp." ---Ignatius to the Ephesians, 4
    3. "It is necessary, as is your habit, to do nothing without the bishop, and that you should be subject also to the presbytery, as to the apostles of Jesus Christ." ---Ignatius to the Trallians, 2
    4. "Look to the bishop,that God also may look upon you. I will be in harmony with those who are subject to the bishop, and the presbyters, and the deacons." ---Ignatius to Polycarp, 6
  2. The writings of Ignatius speak of only one bishop in each congregation: the phrase "the bishop" (singular) is characteristic of the writings of Ignatius.
  3. Although the phrase "the bishop" is a prominent feature in the letters of Ignatius, it is noticeably absent from his letter to the church at Rome.
  4. The authority of the bishop is still local, not regional. (e.g., "Without the bishop let no one do anything connected with the church....Without the bishop it is not lawful either to baptize or to celebrate a love feast." ---Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, 8
  5. Fifteen letters are attributed to Ignatius. Eight of these are now regarded as spurious. The remaining letters are found in different forms, the best of which is still regarded as containing later interpolations. Due to the disparity between the church government of Ignatius and that described by contemporary writers (e.g., Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Didache, Shepherd of Hermas), some scholars believe that Ignatius was attempting to create a situation rather than report on an existing one. It appears, however, that, if the writings of Ignatius are genuine, then the monarchial bishop was indeed present at this time in Antioch, but probably in few, if any, other localities.
  6. Comments of recent scholars about the Ignatian letters:
    1. "It seems highly probable that even the shorter Greek form has suffered extensive interpolation, how extensive no one is in a position to determine. The cautious student of the history of polity and doctrine will decline to base important conclusions on the unsupported testimony of these writings. Even if the reference to Ignatian epistles in the epistle of Polycarp be genuine, this would not prove the authenticity of the epistles in their present form." (Newmann, Albert Henry. "Ignatius of Antioch", Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia)
    2. "The whole story of Ignatius is more legendary than real, and his writings are subject to grave suspicion of fraudulent interpolation." ---Schaff, Philip. A History of the Christian Church. vol. 2, p.145
    3. Admitting the substantial integrity of the texts, the strong infusion of episcopacy in them 'is best explained by supposing it to be a new thing, which Ignatius was doing, always and everywhere, his utmost to recommend. As special pleading for a novelty, the Episcopal tone of the Ignatian epistles is easily understood.'" (Hitchcock; via McClintock & Strong. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. "Episcopacy". p.264)
    4. "'In short, the Ignatian Episcopacy, instead of having the appearance of a settled polity, handed down from the apostles, has the appearance of being a new and growing institution, unlike what went before, as well as what was coming after it'" (Hitchcock. Am. Presbyt. and Theol. Rev. vol. v, no.17; via McClintock & Strong. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. "Church". p.328)
    5. The suspicion of later interpolations in the writings of Ignatius is strengthened by the fact of the contrast between his writings and the discussion of the subject of bishops and deacons in those writings that are contemporary with him. Most writers believe, however, that, even though interpolations may exist, that the original writings of Ignatius still contained some element of the idea of the bishop as a higher office than that of elder. (This is due, at least in part, to the prevalence and thematic nature of the idea of “the bishop” in his writings.)
4. Polycarp (ca. A.D. 107-115)
  1. Polycarp mentions elders and deacons but never mentions "the bishop".
  2. "Polycarp and the elders with him..." (or "Polycarp, and those who with him are elders...") ---Ad. Phil., intro.
  3. He urges the church "to be subject to the presbyters and deacons". ---Ad. Phil., 5
  4. "Let the presbyters also be compassionate, merciful to all, bringing back those who have wandered..." ---Ad. Phil., 6
5. Didache (or The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles)
  1. The date is uncertain, but possibly ca. 120-150 A.D. (Suggested dates for the original range from about 60 A.D. to about 200 A.D.)
  2. "Elect therefore for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord..." ---Didache, 15:1
6. Shepherd of Hermas
  1. Date: ca. 140-150 A.D.
  2. "...the elders who are in charge of the church." ---Vision, II:4,3
  3. vid. Vision III:5,1
7. Justin Martyr (ca. 150 A.D.)
  1. "Next there is brought to the president of the brethren (or, possibly, "the one of the brethren who was presiding") bread and a cup of water mixed with wine. Taking these he sends up praise and glory to the Father of all through the name of his Son and of the Holy Spirit and makes thanksgiving...When the president has given thanks and all the people have made their acclamation, those called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water for which thanksgiving has been given, and they carry some away to those who are absent." ---Apology, I, 65
  2. "Then when the reader ceases, the president in a discourse admonishes and urges the imitation of these good things. Next we all rise together and send up prayers...the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability...those who have means, and are willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows, and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds, and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need." (Apology, I, 67)
  3. The "president of the brethren" (or, possibly, "the one of the brethren who was presiding") may or may not refer to an official and permanent position.
    1. If it is referring to an official and permanent position, then it is more testimony to the rise of the bishop, in some areas, by the mid-second century.
    2. However, the most likely explanation would seem to be that the text is reflecting a form of church government consistent with that present in the New Testament, since the term "preside" (from the Greek word "proistemi") is used in the New Testament in describing the work of elders both in ecclesiastical matters (I Timothy 5:17) and in family matters (I Timothy 3:4-5). (It is also used to describe the family responsibility of deacons (I Timothy 3:12) as well as the work of unspecified people in the church (Romans 12:8; I Thessalonians 5:12).) The mention of deacons, coupled with the absence of any reference to elders (either as subordinate to the bishop or as part of a bishop-elders council) would also tend to argue against this being a description of a monarchial bishop, since the earliest monarchial bishops were still accompanied by a plurality of elders in each congregation.
    3. Other possibilities are that the reference is to either an unofficial role ("the one of the brethren who was presiding"), a temporary or incomplete role (possibly due to a lack of qualified elders), or an intermediate form of church government somewhere between that of the earliest church government, consisting of elders and deacons, and that of the monarchial episcopal system, which prevailed throughout Christianity by the mid-third century.
8. Second Clement (ca. 150-160 A.D.)
  1. No office higher than the elders is mentioned.
  2. "Let us not seem merely to believe and give attention now while we are being admonished by the elders, but also when we have gone home let us remember the commandments of the Lord..." (17:3)
  3. "Woe unto us because we were not obedient to the elders when they taught us concerning our salvation." (17:5)
9. Irenaeus (ca. 180 A.D.)
  1. Irenaeus apparently regarded "bishop" as a distinct office from "elder" (or at least as an office which did not generally allow for more than one person per congregation).
    1. In commenting upon Paul's meeting with the Ephesian elders in Acts chapter 20, Irenaeus adds the phrase "...and the other cities adjoining...", apparently in an effort to reconcile the existence of a plural number of bishops at the meeting. ("For when the bishops and presbyters who came from Ephesus and the other cities adjoining had assembled in Miletus..." ---Adv. Haer. III.xiv.2.)
    2. "The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church (i.e., at Rome) committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate....To him succeeded Anacletus; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric." (Adv. Haer. III.iii.3)
  2. However, Irenaeus still, at times, uses the terms "bishop" and "elder" interchangeably or, at the least, with some overlap in meaning. It may be, as some historians have suggested, that all bishops at this time are also referred to as elders, but not all elders are referred to as bishops; or it may be that the distinctions are still nebulous and not formally fixed.
    1. In writing to Victor of Rome, Irenaeus refers to previous bishops of Rome as "presbyters":
      1. "...those very presbyters before thee..." (Eusebius. Eccl. Hist. V.24)
      2. "And those presbyters who governed the church before Soter, and over which you now preside, I mean Anicetus and Pius, Hyginus with Telesphorus and Xystus..." (ibid.)
    2. "Such presbyters does the church nourish, of whom also the prophet says: `I will give thy rulers in peace, and thy bishops in righteousness.'" (Adv. Haer. IV.xxvi.5)
    3. "Now all these are of much later date than the bishops to whom the apostles committed the churches;...Those, therefore, who desert the preaching of the church, call in question the knowledge of the holy presbyters..." (Adv. Haer. V.xx.1-2)
    4. Succession of the:
      1. episcopate
        a) "...we are in a position to reckon up those who were by the apostles instituted bishops in the churches, and the succession of
        these men to our own times... whom also they were leaving behind as their successors, delivering up their own place of
        government to these men ..." (Adv. Haer. III.iii.1)
        b) "...the preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops..." (Adv. Haer. III.iii.2)
        c) vid. Adv. Haer. IV.xxvi.2 (below)
      2. presbyterate
        a) "...we refer them to that tradition which originates from the apostles, which is preserved by the means of the successions of
             presbyters in the churches..." (Adv. Haer. III.ii.2)
        b) "...it is incumbent to obey the presbyters who are in the church, those who, as I have shown, possess the succession from the
             apostles; those who, together with the succession of the ;episcopate, have received the certain gift of truth..." (Adv. Haer.
             IV.xxvi.2)
    5. "The development indeed of monarchial episcopacy was a primary consequence of the conflict with Gnosticism, and its origination out of simpler constitutional forms betrays itself in a mode of expression derived indeed from earlier times, but still common to Irenaeus, with Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, Hippolytus, and others, the use, namely, of the official titles, `presbuteroi' and `episkopoi', to designate alternately the same persons....The true unbroken apostolical succession and `praeconium ecclesiae' is therefore attributed to the same persons, now as `presbuteroi' now as `episkopoi'...; nay, in so many words, the `successio episcopalis' was assigned to the `presbuteroi' (iv.26,2)." (Smith, William. A Dictionary of Christian Biography. vol. 3, pp. 272-273.)
    6. "`The wavering terminology of Irenaeus is indicative not of apostolic tradition, but of later genesis and growth, and that growth not yet completed.'" (Hitchcock. Am. Presbyt. and Theol. Rev. vol. v, no.17; via McClintock & Strong. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. "Church". p.328; "Episcopacy". p.264)
  3. Many believe that the episcopacy as seen by Irenaeus has moved to the diocesan level (one bishop over a region instead of just over a congregation).
  4. In the writings of Irenaeus we see a growth of the ideas of:
    1. episcopal succession (e.g., Adv. Haer. III.ii.2; III. iii.1-2; IV.xxvi.2,4; V.xx.1)
    2. the primacy of Rome (e.g., Adv. Haer. III.iii.2)
10. Clement of Alexandria (ca. 190 A.D.)---In the writings of Clement of Alexandria (as in the writings of Irenaeus) a threefold ministry exists with bishops, elders and deacons being at least somewhat separate offices. It appears, however, that bishops are still regarded as presbyters, although the reverse may not necessarily be so.
  1. Mentions of a threefold ministry:
    1. "Since, according to my opinion, the grades here in the church, of bishops, presbyters, deacons, are imitations of the angelic glory..." (Stromata VI.xiii)
    2. "Innumerable commands such as these are written in the holy Bible pertaining to chosen persons, some to presbyters, some to bishops and deacons, others to widows..." (Instructor III.xii.{97}) [Note: This specific reference may or may not be referring to a threefold ministry.]
  2. References to a twofold ministry:
    1. "Similarly, also, in the church, the elders attend to the department which has improvement for its object; and the deacons to the ministerial." (Stromata VII.i)
    2. In commenting upon I Timothy 3, Clement equates the "bishop" of I Timothy 3 with "presbyter" (or "elder"): "Indeed Paul altogether accepts the man who is husband of one wife, whether he be presbyter, deacon, or layman, if he conducts his marriage unblameably." (Stromata III.xii {translation via Ferguson, Everett. Early Christians Speak, p.169})
    3. "...(the Apostle John) looking to the bishop appointed ...said, `This (youth) I commit to you...'. And the presbyter, taking home the youth committed to him, reared, kept, cherished, and finally baptized him." ("Who Is the Rich Man That Will Be Saved?" xlii)
11. Tertullian (ca.195-210 A.D.)
  1. Bishops are not mentioned as frequently in the writings of Tertullian as in the writings of some other prominent early Christian authors. (This is true even of his earlier, pre-Montanist writings.) However, bishops in the writings of Tertullian seem to be clearly distinguished from elders, unless the listing in On Prescription Against Heretics 3 ("...if a bishop, if a deacon...") is intended to be exhaustive. (cf. Against Marcion IV.5; On Prescription Against Heretics 32,36)
  2. Tertullian was the first, of which we have record, to speak of a priesthood with sacerdotal functions, although it is not as fully developed as it is at the time of Cyprian (Schaff, vol.II,p.126). {Some think that it is implied in the writings of Clement of Rome (vid. I Clement 40), but this is unlikely.} Tertullian changed his views in later life, after adopting some of the Montanist views, and rejected the idea of a special priesthood altogether, considering all believers to be priests. (cf. Exhortation to Chastity 7:3; On Modesty 21)

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