The FReeper Foxhole Studies The Early History of Torpedoes

The Heated Torpedo

With increasing air pressures it was found that freezing could occur on the expansion phase of the standard compressed air engine and as a cure heating was introduced. This produced spectacular results apparently to the surprise of the designers. It is not clear whether the first effective heating system was introduced by Britain or United States. The earliest form was the "Elswick” heater as patented by Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Company in 1904. Fuel was sprayed into the air vessel of a conventional weapon and ignited.

The device was demonstrated in an 18 in. Fiume Mk. III at Bincleaves in 1905 before a distinguished audience of British and Japanese experts. The weapon speed was nine knots more than for the unheated version. The system had the disadvantage of badly sooting the air vessel however and large temperature excursions could sometimes occur.

The Whitehead heater system, introduced two years after Robert Whitehead's death in 1905, mixed the fuel and air after the pressure reducer so that only a small volume was exposed to the heat of combustion. Even so the combustion chamber had to be cooled and for this reason water was swirled around to the walls. The vaporisation of the water greatly added to the energy available for propulsion.

These systems became known as the "dry heater" and "wet heater" respectively. Although also known as "steam" torpedoes it can be seen that these wet heater weapons were still primarily hot air driven with the steam providing extra energy.

The engines then in use had to be modified to cope with inlet temperatures of the order of I ,0000F by changing the valve arrangement and adding a cylinder to give a four-cylinder radial engine capable of 180 H.P. as shown in Fig. 16.

FIG. 16. Four-Cylinder Brotherhood Radial Engine as used by Whitehead.

Fig. 17 shows the layout of the R.G.F. wet heater system and it can be seen that the water supply pressure is used to force the fuel into the combustion pot. Thus, if the water feed should fail for any reason, the fuel would be automatically cut off, thus preventing the combustion pot from burning out. In fact, a rather simpler system was invented in 1908 by Engineer Lieut. Hardcastle and became known as the R.G.F. heater.

FIG. 17. R.G.F. Heater System.

The United States had taken up the manufacturing rights for the Whitehead cold compressed air weapons in 1892 and Fig. 18 shows the Mark I weapon produced in that year. The Mark II and III weapons embodied slight improvements but the Mark V was the first to carry a heater. Although the British had experimented with a Parsons turbine as early as 1899 *and later with a Curtis type the results were not encouraging and the four-cylinder engine remained in vogue with British torpedoists for many years.

Mr. F. Leavitt, who worked for the E. W. Bliss concern where the Whitehead weapons were made under license, regarded the Brotherhood engines as "corny" and set about building a Curtis-driven weapon which became known as the Bliss-Leavitt Mark I. This was accepted into the U.S. Navy in November 1905.

The propulsion was by dry heater using alcohol as fuel without water diluent. This latter was acceptable on account of the relatively low calorific content of alcohol. From this point in time until the introduction of the electric torpedo during the last war the U.S. Navy have stood by the turbine and the British by the reciprocating engine.

FIG. 18. 18 in Fiume type built in USA (1892).

The gearing was to be a source of much concern in later years when the noise of torpedoes became an important feature of torpedo detection and it was found that the tail gearing was the primary source of high frequency noise. The need for a relatively low inlet temperature to the turbine also reduced efficiency due to the use of either a low performance fuel or water injection. The requirement to carry a diluent (and hence reduce the payload of the weapon, was overcome when the Japanese injected seawater directly into their turbines. This policy was not universally popular however.

The French in fact were experimenting with a seawater diluent turbine engine in 1913 with which it was claimed a 50 knot torpedo would be powered. This does not appear to have materialised and the French continued to rely on piston engines at least for another decade.

In the period from the introduction of the heated torpedo until the Great War many attempts were made to improve weapon performance but few of these experiments reached service in time for the war. A contrarotating direct drive turbine was developed in Britain by two midshipmen named Montagu and Larcom but the Board of Enquiry rejected the idea and this marked the end of turbine drive in British weapons. Further experiments were carried out at R.A.E. Famborough after the First World War but with no better success.

FIG. 19. US Bliss-Leavitt, Mark 3 (1911).

The reciprocating engine was, by the outbreak of war, well established and although the Whitehead concern had produced a huge two-cylinder engine just prior to the war it never entered service during that period.

The problems of improving performance were setting designers thinking of ways to eliminate the very heavy air pressure vessel which often accounted for one third of the weapon weight.

The use of enriched air and even pure oxygen had been considered at an early date but rejected on account of the capricious nature of these gases. The British 'tried adding Ammonium Nitrate to the torpedo's "drinking water". This chemical broke down into water and Nitrous Oxide (N20), this latter being an oxidant. Although some propulsive improvements were found these were not sufficient to warrant building service weapons.

As part of this search for greater propulsive efficiency, the three-bladed propeller was introduced in 1893 and the four-bladed by 1897. Further increases did not occur until recent times. Propeller design was empirical at the turn of the century because the necessary theory had not then been developed but even so quite good designs were found. Indeed, a speed difference of only ~ knot was considered significant.

Fig. 20 shows the curiously curved blades adopted around the period of the First World War. Good examples of German l9.7 in. weapons with these blades can be seen at the Armoury Museum, Valletta. The purpose of the blades was to assist the torpedo to slip through holes in anti-torpedo netting used extensively for ship protection.

FIG. 20. Tail of 19.7 German Torpedo (1917). Note curved Propellers.

These nets were arranged to be swung out on booms at short notice and were popular for several decades. Fig. 21 shows two torpedoes caught in nets around H.M.S. Diamond during practice shots in the pre-First War period. Several counters to the nets were devised, many of them by the Whitehead firm. Fig. 22 shows one device fitted to weapon noses designed to force the net apart. Other devices included explosive charges in the nose which fired a circular cutter into the net. The torpedo then slipped through the hole so produced.

FIG. 21. Net Protection of HMS Diamond Two Torpedoes caught at 8.5 knots.

FIG. 22. Experimental net piercing nose cap (1914).

Nets became unpopular for battle engagements because of the slow speed enforced on the ship by their use. Eventually they were restricted to the protection of ships in harbour.

The first 21 in. torpedo, the forerunner of the present submarine weapon, appeared in 1908 as the R.G.F. Mk. I having a range of 3,500 yards and a speed of 45 knots. The corresponding United States weapon was the Bliss-Leavitt Mk. VIII which appeared in 1913. The 21 in. weapons were by no means the largest diameter "conventional" torpedoes. A 26 in. diameter weapon had been produced in 1900 and Whitehead built a 27.5 in. weapon for the Japanese Navy. These were experimental weapons however and were not successful on account of dynamic instabilities resulting from their relative shortness.

Around the turn of the century the American firm of Bliss-Leavitt introduced the air-blast gyroscope whereby the wheel was run up to a speed of 10,000 r.p.m. in only 0~35 seconds from firing. This gyro provided adequate control over the weapon from firing to impact despite the long ranges now being obtained.

This type of gyroscope remained virtually unchanged until the introduction of the air-blast maintained wheels.

British torpedoes in the first two decades of this century were produced at the Royal Naval Torpedo Factory (opened at Greenock in 1910), the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich and external purchases from the Weymouth and Fiume factories of Robert Whitehead. The main production prior to the war was the R.G.F. Mk. VII and the Whitehead Weymouth Mk. I, both 18 in. weapons as was the R.N.T.F. Mk. VIII which was a submarine launched weapon and the first type to be produced at Greenock.

The Weymouth works produced their first 21 in. torpedo in 1909 but only two experimental models were built and after unsuccessful trials they were scrapped in favour of the much more successful Weymouth Mk. II which was sold extensively abroad and to the Royal Navy.

Just before the war Whitehead's empire came under the strong influence of Vickers, Armstrong Ltd. This influence was to dominate the British Whitehead Factory until after the Second World War when the independent torpedo production ceased after a series of abortive ventures.

By the outbreak of war in 1914 most of the old "cold air" torpedoes had been converted and a new type of torpedo known as a pattern runner was invented by Lieut. F. H. Sand-ford. This weapon could be sent to run a preset distance and then zig-zag back and forth along a given track. This made the chance of hitting a ship much greater when the speed of the target was not accurately known.

Practice with torpedoes in the Royal Navy was carried out at the rate of 8,000 test shots per year with a hitting rate of 98%. It must be admitted that the test was not nearly as severe as one would expect to experience in wartime.

The firing of torpedoes was by 1914 the main means of attack by submarines. A highly embellished account of a trip in a submarine is given in Jane's book Torpedoes and Torpedo Warfare published just before the turn of the century. The reader is left in a claustrophobic state of mind after only a few pages but it is interesting to note the rapid and parallel development of the submarine and torpedo and the way they eventually became essential to each other's effectiveness as a fighting system.

A ship hit by a torpedo in 1917

Before finishing it is perhaps worth recalling the incident at Simonstown Naval Base when a mechanic stripped down a torpedo believing it to have been run and exhausted. In fact the air vessel was fully charged to over 2,000 p.s.i. As the man unscrewed the air vessel drain plug the screw stripped the last three threads and the complete torpedo shot off, literally, like a rocket. It hit the far wall of the workshop at roof level and bounced 30 feet back to land as a crumpled mess of metal at the mechanic's feet. The man suffered only shock and presumably a desire to be more careful in future! In the same year an 18 in. weapon broke the then world high jump record for torpedoes by leaping 40 feet into the air as a result of an elevator malfunction at over 45 knots! This record has been broken several times in more recent times.

Today's Educational Sources and suggestions for further reading:
A History of the Torpedo - The Early Days by Geoff Kirby - First Published in the Journal of the Royal Navy Scientific Service Vol 27 No 1

www.npt.nuwc.navy.mil/
www.num.kpt.nuwc.navy.mil/TorpedoTech.htm

Naval Torpedo Station

The Naval Torpedo Station, Goat Island, ca. 1890

The original Torpedo Station did its best to fill the topography of Goat Island, but there needed to be quite a bit of room between the Officer housing units (on the left) and the facility itself. Explosions and other mishaps were par for the course in this brave new world of undersea warfare.

As a result of the American Civil War, armored ships, steam power plants, mines, spar torpedoes, explosive shells, and various other technological innovations, including the submarine, had been introduced as radical new concepts in conducting naval warfare. The Confederate submersible, CSS Hunley, was the first submarine built for deep submergence, and she was powered by eight men working a hand-cranked propeller.

David Dixon Porter (1813-1891) and other Navy visionaries were concerned about the impact that emerging technologies would have on future naval warfare. In 1869, when Admiral Porter became the Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy, he actively campaigned for the creation of an experimental station to conduct hands-on experiments with torpedoes, mines, explosives, and electrical devices to determine how these new technologies should be employed.

A committee was formed to examine sites for the experimental station, and in July 1869, the Secretary of the Navy announced that the new activity, the Naval Torpedo Station, would be located on Goat Island in Newport, Rhode Island.

The Fish torpedo, the Navy's first self-propelled torpedo, was built by the Naval Torpedo Station in 1871. The design was based on the physical characteristics of the Whitehead torpedo designed by the Englishman Robert Whitehead in Fuime Austria.

The Naval Torpedo Station as it appeared in 1880 on Goat Island in Newport.

The amount of torpedo hardware being generated was rapidly increasing, and during the first three decades of its existence, the torpedo station found itself in a race to build new physical facilities fast enough to keep up with expanding torpedo program requirements.

Up through the mid-1880's, the commanding officers at the Naval Torpedo Station were hand-picked by Admiral Porter, most having served with him during the Civil War. An impressive number of these early officers achieved flag rank later in their careers, including Admiral Dewey, the hero of Manila Bay; Admiral Sampson, who defeated the Spanish at Havana; and Admiral Fletcher, who received the Congressional Medal of Honor for commanding naval forces at Vera Cruz in 1914.

They and many others will long be remembered for their pioneering efforts in establishing theworld's first torpedo activity. Their innovations, goals and strategies initiated a century of progress in undersea naval power.

The Herreshoff spar torpedo boat LIGHTNING docked at the Naval Torpedo Station.

Storage room for torpedoes at the Naval Torpedo Station. The torpedo station issued weapons to the Fleet as they were needed.

The spar torpedo, used with some success during the Civil War, consisted of an explosive charge fastened to the end of a spar secured to a boat. Rigged in this way, the spar torpedo could be projected forward or abeam and lowered well below the waterline of an enemy ship.

This machine was used to pick apart raw English cotton, the first step in producing guncotton (used prior to 1900). The Naval Torpedo Station was the first major contributor in the development and production of new high-energy explosives for the U.S. Navy. The results obtained with nitroglycerin and dynamite were spectacular, but due to the shock sensitivity and instability of these compounds, guncotton appeared to be a wiser choice for volume production and fleet use.

Reducing the cotton to a pulp and solidifying it was the third process to guncotton production. This band saw, a very dangerous tool, was used to create the warheads.

The second step to processing guncotton, the nitration process, was known as the nitrate bath. The cotton (nitrate/cellulose) was washed and carried to the next building for the final step in the process.

The Cunningham rocket torpedo, designed by a New Bedford Shoemaker (circa 1893), was tested for several years at the Naval Torpedo Station. Lack of accuracy and wide variations in speed were major problems which kept early rocket torpedoes in the experimental stages.

The Howell Torpedo was the first automobile torpedo issued to the fleet. It had a range of 400 yards at a speed of 25 knots and a maximum range of 700 yards. The warhead charge was 100 pounds of guncotton. Just prior to launching, a 130-pound flywheel in the torpedo was spun to 10,000 rpm by a slip-mounted steam engine.

In the mid-1880's, the Navy initiated the design and procurement of a new class of steel-hulled fleet torpedo boats to employ the new Howell torpedo. The Herreshoff Manufacturing Company in Bristol, RI, was selected to build the first of these sea-going vessels.

The new torpedo boats were named the CUSHING class in honor of the Civil War hero Lieutenant William B. Cushing who sank the Confederate iron-clad warship ALBEMARLE with a spar torpedo. Shown here is the USS STILETTO, the first of its class, purchased by the Naval Torpedo Station.

The Holland submarine, designed and built by J.P. Holland, was purchased by the Navy in early 1900 for $120,000. For armament she carried a nitroglycerin gun and one torpedo tube with five Whitehead torpedoes.

Training continued at the Naval Torpedo Station during the early 1900's. Both officers and enlisted men were instructed in a wide range of technical subjects including torpedoes, diving, mines, gun-control systems, torpedo boat and submarine operations, and countermining.

The Naval Torpedo Station on Goat Island in 1910.

The activity had greatly expanded to support its involvement in torpedo production.

A submarine docked at the Naval Torpedo Station, Goat Island, in 1900.

Theodore Roosevelt comes ashore at the Naval Training Station in 1913.

The Naval Torpedo Station as it appeared in 1920. The torpedo station grew dramatically during World War I, and provided the resident expertise and facilities required to respond to the Navy's urgent wartime operational needs. During the war, thousands of Naval personnel were trained in the use of weapons, over 1000 torpedoes were manufactured, and hundreds of primers, fuses, bombs, and explosive devices were produced. The Naval Torpedo Station also responded to urgent demands to develop depth bombs and mines that played a significant role in bringing the U-boat campaign under control.

The need for primers significantly increased during World War I. and their fabrication was a delicate, labor-intensive effort. During the war, production was over 200,000 primers per year, and over 3200 people were employed to produce them. Of the 3200 employees, 300 were women, and they demonstrated superior skill and dexterity in the delicate hand work needed to produce primers. With women in the factory, primer output increased from 5000 per week to 8000 per day. Women averaged more than six times the output of men. No wonder the Naval Torpedo Station was an early equal opportunity employer.

By World War II, the Goat Island facility complex became an industrial activity primarily dedicated to the production of ordnance. Naval Torpedo Station personnel worked around the clock to manufacture torpedoes during the war.

The Naval Torpedo Station became a pretty impressive site during the 1940's. The Naval Torpedo Station produced over 18,000 torpedoes during World War II, almost twice as many as any other single torpedo manufacturing activity. Also during that time, the torpedo station was extensively involved in correcting fleet or production problems.

As the most experienced activity, the Naval Torpedo Station frequently had to retool and switch production in response to changing fleet requirements or to cover shortfalls because of production problems at other activities. In addition to this impressive production record, the torpedo station was also extensively involved in proofing torpedoes and preparing them for fleet issue.

During World War II, the new Gould Island firing range proved its worth as over 75,000 torpedoes were proof-fired by the Naval Torpedo Station in support of the Navy's torpedo programs.

Naval Torpedo Station personnel hard at work testing and proofing torpedoes.

The Navy Underwater Sound Laboratory in New London, Connecticut, (1945 - 1970) the center of sonar development for both surface ships and submarines, was a predecessor organization of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center Division Newport.

USS COD

The USS COD Submarine Memorial is a National Historic Landmark and is docked in Cleveland, Ohio

USS COD SS-224 World War II Fleet Submarine

TORPEDO LOADING ABOARD COD

The Mark-14 torpedo shown here being loaded into Cod's forward torpedo room on 13 August 1998 is a cut-away of an actual World War II steam torpedo. All of the internal mechanisms are revealed to show the intricate details of this complex mechanism for our visitors.

Once the crane has placed the torpedo on the slanted external platform above the torpedo loading hatch the remainder of the procedure is all accomplished by hand using rope lines and chain falls.

The cut-away Mark-14 torpedo is being lowered below through Cod's forward torpedo loading hatch by crewmen Carl Seitz and Bob Leader on the snubbing lines under the watchful eye of Chief John Culp. Because Cod is the only remaining WW-II fleet boat that has not been modified to provide stairways she provides the only opportunity for reenacting this WW-II torpedo loading procedure.

Chief Culp and crewman Carl Seitz prepare one of Cod's torpedo trays in the Forward Torpedo Room. The tray will be pivoted from it's forward end to the proper angle for receiving the torpedo as it is lowered from the deck above through the torpedo loading hatch. It will then be brought back to level at the appropriate height and then slid to one side of the compartment.

An unmodified Mark 14 torpedo has been lowered below and is being prepared for leveling by Darrel Flint and Carl Seitz.

Today's Torpedoes: Mark 46, Mark 48, Mark 50

Description: Self-propelled guided projectile that operates underwater and is designed to detonate on contact or in proximity to a target.

Features: Torpedoes may be launched from submarines, surface ships, helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft. They are also used as parts of other weapons; the Mark 46 torpedo becomes the warhead section of the ASROC (Anti-Submarine ROCket) and the Captor mine uses a submerged sensor platform that releases a torpedo when a hostile contact is detected. The three major torpedoes in the Navy inventory are the Mark 48 heavyweight torpedo, the Mark 46 lightweight and the Mark 50 advanced lightweight.

The MK-48 is designed to combat fast, deep-diving nuclear submarines and high performance surface ships. It is carried by all Navy submarines. The improved version, MK-48 ADCAP, is carried by attack submarines, the Ohio class ballistic missile submarines and will be carried by the Seawolf class attack submarines. The MK-48 replaced both the MK-37 and MK-14 torpedoes. The MK-48 has been operational in the U.S. Navy since 1972. MK-48 ADCAP became operational in 1988 and was approved for full production in 1989.

The MK-46 torpedo is designed to attack high performance submarines, and is presently identified as the NATO standard. The MK-46 Mod 5 torpedo is the backbone of the Navy's lightweight ASW torpedo inventory and is expected to remain in service until the year 2015.

The MK-50 is an advanced lightweight torpedo for use against the faster, deeper-diving and more sophisticated submarines. The MK-50 can be launched from all ASW aircraft, and from torpedo tubes aboard surface combatant ships. The MK-50 will eventually replace the MK-46 as the fleet's lightweight torpedo.

Features: MK-48 and MK-48 ADCAP torpedoes can operate with or without wire guidance and use active and/or passive homing. When launched they execute programmed target search, acquisition and attack procedures. Both can conduct multiple reattacks if they miss the target. The MK-46 torpedo is designed to be launched from surface combatant torpedo tubes, ASROC missiles and fixed and rotary wing aircraft. In 1989, a major upgrade program began to enhance the performance of the MK-46 Mod 5 in shallow water. Weapons incorporating these improvements are identified as Mod 5A and Mod 5A(S).

Torpedoes are designed to attack enemy surface ships. During World War II, destroyers such as CASSIN YOUNG carried 10 torpedoes like these, each weighing 2,215 pounds. A three-man crew programmed the torpedoes' course, speed, and depth. Once fired into the water, the torpedo provided its own propulsion that could carry a 780 pound explosive charge three miles at 45 knots or 7 1/2 miles at 28.5 knots.

It was usually difficult to hit a target with a torpedo, and sometimes torpedoes failed to explode on impact. However, when it worked, a single torpedo could sink a ship.

Torpedoes on deck. The Texas could fire torpedoes from two tubes on either side of the ship located forward just below the water line. This was removed during the refit 1925-27.

The Seawolf

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A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE: U.S. Navy's First Active Acoustic Homing Torpedoes
by Tom Pelick
This information is copyrighted and cannot be used for redistribution without permission from the author.

        The Harvard Underwater Sound Laboratory, HUSL, was a scientific base for the development of active and passive homing systems for torpedoes during WWII. The scientists at Harvard and other Labs researched and developed concepts for potential applications in the defense of our country. As reported in the January 1996 issue of the Navy Submarine Review, NSR, by this author and in the April 1996 issue of the NSR by Dr. Fred Milford, the passive acoustic homing concepts were developed and engineered at HUSL and at Bell Labs. The resulting product was produced by Western Electric, with assistance from General Electric, and became the first U.S. passive homing torpedo, MK24 (FIDO). There was an independent but cooperative effort between HUSL and Bell Labs. This passive homing system concept was then carried into many other passive homing torpedoes. HUSL also worked with General Electric, GE, in the development of the first active homing system for torpedoes.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
DR Vanevar Bush suggested to President Roosevelt prior to US involvement in WWII that scientists and engineers be utilized to assist in advanced technology applications for the military.   In June 1940, President Roosevelt appointed a group of eminent scientists to become part of the National Defense Research Council, NDRC with Dr. Bush as the chairman. In 1941, NRDC became part of the newly formed Office of Scientific Research and Development, OSRD. When Dr. Bush became director of the OSRD, Dr. Conant, President of Harvard, became the chairman of NRDC.    Research laboratories were established at Universities, such as Harvard, Columbia, and Cal Tech at Pasadena. Top scientists, engineers, and technicians were hired to perform the needed research and development for military applications.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The role of a scientific laboratory to develop concepts, followed by engineering development by other Navy sponsored labs, and finally production by industry is still carried on today. The U. S. Navy has four University Laboratories: The Applied Physics laboratory at Johns Hopkins, founded in 1943; the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State, founded in 1945 as the Ordnance Research Laboratory , ORL, with the transfer of HUSL personnel; the Applied Research Laboratories at University of Texas founded in 1945 as the Defense Research Laboratory with the transfer of HUSL personnel; and the Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington founded in 1943.    After HUSL closed its doors following the end of WWII, many of the HUSL torpedo scientists, engineers, and torpedo men transferred to Penn State to work at the formed Ordnance Research Lab and to the University of Texas to work at the Defense Research Lab. Dr. Eric Walker, Assistant Director at HUSL, moved to Penn State to become the head of the Electrical Engineering Department and at the Navy’s urging, formed the Ordnance Research Lab. Dr. Paul Boner, another Assistant Director at HUSL, returned to Texas and formed the Defense Research Lab. Each of the University labs have a different mission but maintain a cooperative effort since there may be over-lapping tasks.
The Navy provides funding to these laboratories to do ongoing research. This is performed as a preventative measure for future application of this accumulated scientific knowledge to answer potential threats posed by unfriendly countries. When there is a threat, the Navy puts out an Operational Requirement to meet the threat.   The University Laboratories respond with their accumulated knowledge base coupled with assistance from other Navy Laboratories to provide an answer to the threat. After the conceptual system is formulated and prototype tested by the University Laboratories, it is then available for contractual bidding by Industry. The Laboratories assigned to carry on the supervision of developmental engineering are largely the Navy Laboratories, such as the Naval Underwater Weapons Centers, NUWC, at Newport, R.I. and at Keyport, WA. However, the University laboratories and the Navy labs will generally have some degree of involvement until after production and Follow-on Test and Evaluation. There is a variable degree of overlap. Navy funding categories for fundamental research and initial development are 6.0, 6.1, and 6.2. Prototypes were initially funded by 6.2 money , but today, prototype development is funded by 6.3 money.   Developmental work today is by category 6.3 and production is funded by category 6.4. However, as in the mission assignments, there is some overlap.
The feasibility of these concepts is tested in prototype torpedoes as Harvard and Bell Labs had done with the Mk 24 torpedo tests. Torpedo development is one of the missions of the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State. ARL has been involved in the research and development of most torpedoes in the Fleet today with the exception of the Mk 46 torpedo homing system which was developed by the Naval Torpedo Station at Pasadena, CA (later NOSC, San Diego),
ACTIVE HOMING STUDIES
In addition to the passive homing studies at HUSL and Bell Labs under Navy Project NO-94 during WWII, active homing studies were being performed at HUSL and at General Electric, GE under Navy Project N0-181F. The active homing objective under Navy Project N0-181F was to obtain greater detection range through the use of higher directivity and a reduction of self-noise. Self-noise reduction was a challenging task and required comprehensive and experiments. The Mk 18 with electric propulsion was an initial test platform for several homing systems. Other self noise reduction came about through solving ground loop problems, crosstalk between wires, and harmonics.
HUSL scientists and GE engineers each worked on an active homing system, called echo ranging. They encountered much difficulty until they learned more about the of the environment and were able to cope with the resulting acoustic problems. It was difficult for the early active homing systems to distinguish among echoes from the target and the echoes from the bottom, surface, and sealife. In addition , the vertical direction of the echo is confused by refractive properties resulting from thermal differences in the water and by reflections from the boundaries, surface and bottom. Also, horizontal steering at close-in terminal homing ranges is confused since multiple echoes were received from different sections of the target, such as the bow, stern and sail. At long ranges, the entire target is acoustically ensonified and appears as a point source. However, as the range gets very short, multiple echoes appear from several sections of the target and this confuses the active homing system’s horizontal steering. Today’s’ torpedoes are still faced with this problem but have more complex circuitry to provide more accurate horizontal steering.
The Mk 18 with its electric propulsion was one of the torpedoes being fitted with the active homing systems. The major problem, addition to learning the environmental effects, was the internal noise level of the torpedo.
These active acoustic homing torpedoes may be categorized into first generation consisting of the Mk32, Mk 35, Mk 37, Mk 43, and the Mk44 torpedoes. The second generation may include the Mk 46 and Mk 48 torpedoes. The third generation would consist of the Mk 48 ADCAP and the Mk 50 torpedoes. Research work at the laboratories leads to improvements in existing torpedoes with advancements in computers and other technologies. For example, some of the transistors used in the Mk 48 are no fleet longer available so new electronic parts replace them as needed.
MK 32 TORPEDO
The first active homing torpedo in the Fleet was the Mk 32 torpedo. It was an antisubmarine torpedo launched from aircraft and surface ships. It was developed by GE with some combined and competitive effort between HUSL and GE. The Mk 32 torpedo’s homing system was only active and did not have a passive homing capability. The Mk 32 torpedo was about the size of the Mk 24 (FIDO) passive homing torpedo. It was 83 inches long, 19 inch diameter, 700 pound weight, electric propulsion, warhead of 107 pounds HBX, 12 knot speed, and a range 9600 yards(24 minutes). GE had discarded its crystal transducers in favor of the HUSL magnetostrictive transducers.
Eventually, successful demonstrations of active homing were made by GE during June 1943 in the azimuth plane with the Mk 32 prototype. It would be in early February 1944, before the Mk 32 prototype demonstrated a successful homing attack on a target in three dimensions. Since GE did not have available facilities for production, Leeds and Northrup of Philadelphia was awarded the production contract. However, ten torpedoes were produced during WWII and none saw action.
There was some limited active homing work in a developmental torpedo designated the Mk 22. Bell Labs and Westinghouse experimented with active acoustics in the azimuth plane for terminal homing. This work was discontinued in favor of the planned Universal Torpedo to be designated as the Mk 35.
The Ordnance Research Lab in a combined effort with GE continued post war development of the Mk 32 Mod 2 torpedo. About 3300 torpedoes were produced by the Philco Corp. in Philadelphia and the Naval Ordnance Plant in Forest Park, IL. This torpedo saw service from 1950 to 1955, when it was replaced by the Mk 43 torpedo.
The evolution of active homing systems continued at ORL and at GE. ORL pursued the concepts of the Navy Project NO-181 F, designating the work as ORL Project 4 while GE pursued a different approach. These two lines of effort resulted in two distinct types of active homing systems.
MK 35 TORPEDO
As noted earlier in this article, the Navy requested that work begin on a Universal type torpedo with an active homing system. GE was given the contract. The Navy wanted an active homing torpedo capable of being launched from aircraft, surface ship, or submarine. The Mk 35 was the first generation deep diving, long range, acoustic torpedo designed to attack submerged submarines.
The Mk 35 torpedo was based on the acoustic homing system performances of the homing torpedoes Mk 24 and Mk 32. It was originally designed as the Universal Torpedo capable of being launched from any type of platform. During development, the torpedo grew to 162 inches and 1770 pounds eliminating it from aircraft use. It had a 21 inch diameter with a electric propulsion system featuring a seawater battery. It was planned to have an active capability, passive capability, and used a spiral search pattern. It had a speed of 27 knots and a range of 15 kyds. The Mod 1 version reportedly failed OPEVAL. A Mk 35 Mod 2 torpedo was built with a re-designed homing system based on work at GE and ORL.
Between 1949 and 1952, GE at Pittsfield, MA built 400 units which saw limited service. It was withdrawn from further development and production in favor of the Mk 37 torpedo. The research, development, and testing of this torpedo had cost between 14 and 15 million dollars.
HOMING SYSTEM DESIGNS
The evolution of the active homing systems from HUSL continued   in 1945 at ORL (now ARL) and GE resulted in two distinct active homing systems.   Both homing systems measured the target echo in terms of the leading edge rise time, amplitude, and echo length relative to the transmitted pulse. However, the HUSL/ORL design had a Doppler Gate which separated the echoes based on Doppler of greater than 1.2 knots allowing a greater sensitivity to the amplitude detection of echoes from targets. The Doppler gate provided the first viable Doppler classification method of distinguishing targets from false alarms. This had the adverse effect of not detecting very Low Doppler targets, but had the positive effect of significantly reducing the amount of false alarms from reverberation.
One of the designers remembers using a capacitor to slope the front edge of the transmitted pulse to obtain a narrower reverberation spectrum. It was the beginning of what we call today ‘Pulse Weighting or Waveform Shaping’. A square pulse would have a wider reverberation spectrum whereas an amplitude modulated pulse would have a much narrower reverberation spectrum. Also, the reverberation spectrum was also dependent on the length of the transmitted pulse. The narrower the pulse, the wider the reverberation spectrum. The wider reverberation spectrum made it difficult to detect Doppler targets. The GE system, without the Doppler gate, could detect the lower Doppler targets, but was subject to a high false alarm rate.
The ORL transducer design provided a transformer for impedance coupling between the transmitter and transducer which resulted in a greater efficiency, whereas the GE design dumped the power directly into the mis-matched transducer impedance resulting in a loss of transmit power.
In addition, during transmit, the HUSL/ORL design provided the simultaneous driving of all four sectors of the transducer array.   During the receive mode, the transducer produced outputs from four quadrants with different phase centers. The phase differences among these signals indicated the three dimensional direction of the arrival of the echo.   The input circuit converted these voltages to four in-phase voltages of varying amplitude. The amplitude differences between corresponding pairs gave target angle information simultaneously in the horizontal and vertical planes. This allowed the torpedo to boresight on the target during attack. The GE system used a similar transducer with upper and lower halves rather than the four quadrants. Therefore, GE’s system would provide directional steering in the vertical plane, but the horizontal steering was a “steeraway” technique. The torpedo searched by circling until it received a target detection , then in it reversed the turn until the target was lost . This meant that the steering on the target was held at the side of the horizontal beam rather on boresight.
The processing of signals was a problem with receivers using an amplifier to process each signal from the transducer sectors. It was difficult to maintain the same gain in each amplifier. The HUSL/ORL receiver design addressed this problem by using a single amplifier. The four voltages produced by the input circuit were used to amplitude modulate a 1 khz carrier. This signal was passed through a single channel amplifier. The average amplitude of the modulated signal was a measure of the received echo amplitude, the phase of the modulation envelope was an indication of target angle information, and the amplitude of the modulation envelope was a function # of both the echo amplitude and the angle between the direction of echo arrival and the transducer axis.
MK 37 TORPEDO
The ORL/HUSL active homing system design was selected for the Mk 37 torpedo and the contractor was Westinghouse at Sharon, PA. ORL’s Nick Abouresk was the Liaison and Project Manager for the technical direction of ORL’s active homing system implementation into the Mk 37 torpedo. The earlier HUSL design was modified by replacing the larger vacuum tubes with miniature vacuum tubes and much attention was given to packaging, stability, and electronic noise reduction. The operating frequency was 60 KHZ and the propulsion was a two speed electric motor. This torpedo was the first fleet torpedo to have active and passive homing capabilities throughout the run. It was 135 inches in length, 19 inch diameter, 1430 pounds, warhead of 330 # HBX-3, and used a contact exploder. It had a nominal detection and homing range of about 700 yards. This torpedo which was produced in quantities of over 3300 units at the Naval Ordnance Park at Forest Park, IL served as the U.S. Navy’s primary submarine acoustic torpedo from the mid-1950’s until the Mk 48 torpedo replaced it in the early 1970’s.
Since the Mk 37 torpedo had electric propulsion, it would swim out of the torpedo tube instead of being impulsed thereby reducing the launch transients and the detectability of the launching submarine. Wire guide was later added to the torpedo making it 26 inches longer and 230 pounds heavier. The submarine fire control was also modified to take advantage of the wire guide capabilities.
After replacement of the Mk 37 in the U.S. Fleet by the Mk 48, the Mk 37 torpedo was sold to several countries. Today, the Mk 37 torpedo is being used by many countries, including Israel. However, the vacuum tubes in the homing systems of the original versions have been replaced by solid state electronics.   U.S. firms, such as Alliant Tech and Westinghouse, have contracts to modify and service these torpedoes.
MK 43 TORPEDO
As stated earlier, the Mk 32 torpedo was discontinued in favor of the Mk 43 torpedo. The Mk 43 Mod 0 was developed and produced by GE at Pittsfield, MA. It was an inexpensive lightweight air-drop torpedo. After 500 of these units were built, they were discontinued in favor of the Mk 43 Mod 1 and Mk 43 Mod 3 torpedoes.
The Naval Ordnance Test Station, NOTS, Pasadena, CA and the Brush Development Co., Cleveland, OH developed the Mk 43 Mod 1 with a 10 inch diameter, 91.5 inch length , 260 # weight, warhead of 54HBX, active homing with a helical search pattern, and a 15 knot speed and a range endurance of about 4500 yards. Brush Electronics, Cleveland, OH and the Naval Ordnance Park, Forest Park, IL produced 5000 of these torpedoes until they were replaced by the Mk 44 torpedo. It was the first lightweight torpedo capable of being launched from helicopters, fixed wing aircraft, and surface ships. The Mk 43 torpedo was in the Fleet from 1951 to 1957 and was replaced by the Mk 44 torpedo. The Mk 43 torpedoes were sold to the British and perhaps other countries.
MK 44 TORPEDO
The Mk 44 Mod 0 torpedo was a replacement for the Mk 43 torpedo with improvements in speed, warhead size, acoustic homing changes, and pre-launch programmable search modes. It was developed by NOTS, Pasadena, CA and GE, Pittsfield, MA. It was the first air launched fleet torpedo with a seawater-activited battery to provide power. It was produced at GE and later at the Naval Ordnance Plant, Forest Park, IL. It was in service from 1957 through 1967 on destroyers and aircraft as an ASW weapon until it was replaced by the torpedo Mk 46. The Mk 44 torpedo was sold to foreign governments and also produced in Europe by NATO countries.
MK 46 TORPEDO
The Mk 46 was developed by Aerojet General, Azusa, CA and NOTS, Pasadena. It was the first air launched deep diving, high speed ASW torpedo with active/passive homing and represents the second generation in airborne ASW weaponry. It entered the fleet in 1965 and went through several modifications, from Mod 0 through Mod 5. The Mod 1 version was 102 inches long, a diameter of 12.75 inches, weight of 508 pounds, speed of 40 knots, range of 12,000 yards. The Mod 4 version is also capable for use in mine systems, such as Captor.
The Mk 46 Mod 5 torpedo was built based on the studies Near-Term Improvement Program, NEARTIP, and resulted in improvements in acoustic performance in deep and shallow water, counter measure resistance, guidance and control, and the fire control system. A driving force for this NEARTIP torpedo was to respond to the anechoic coatings on Soviet submarines. The MK 46 Mod 5 is primarily an ASW weapon and can be launched from surface ships, fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, ASROC, and mine systems. According to Jane’s book, about 20,000 Mk 46 torpedoes were built for US and foreign use. funded It is estimated that the US fleet may have at least 13,000 Mk 46 torpedoes in its inventory. More current torpedo modifications will provide significant improvements as the advances in computer and electronic technologies continue.   It has not been replaced despite the new advanced Mk 50 torpedo primarily due to cost and reduction of the threat. Jack Slaton , (who worked at ORL, NOSC, Alliant Tech, and is now retired) was one of the chief designers of the Mk 46 homing system and was a major contributor to the Mk 50 homing system.

MK 48 TORPEDO & ADVANCED TORPEDOES
As torpedo technology improves because of research at University and Navy laboratories, these weapons are greatly improved and this in turn provides the submariner with a higher probability of success. The Mk 48 torpedo , which replaced the Mk 37 torpedo in submarines will be discussed in a future issue of the Navy Submarine Review. Also slated for future publication will be the Mk 48 ADCAP and the Mk 50 torpedoes. There is not sufficient article space to discuss these weapons in this article.
INFORMATION COLLECTION AND REVIEW
I would like to thank all those who have provided information which helped me to assemble this article on the early active homing systems in torpedoes and the events leading to the development of these torpedoes. Re-construction of history and publication of events can be very rewarding, leading to many favorable comments as well as a few dissenting opinions. All these are appreciated unless written in a hostile tone. It takes a considerable time and dedication to research and write this article for your enjoyment .
I would appreciate any information you might have on the development of the Mk 48 torpedo that may be included in my next article.
ADDRESS:   Tom Pelick
609 Berkshire Drive
State College, PA 16803
tpelick@psu.edu

On This Day In History

Birthdates which occurred on December 21:
1117 Thomas Becket archbishop of Canterbury
1537 Johan III king of Sweden (1569-92)
1804 Benjamin Disraeli (author, statesman: "No government can be long secure without a formidable opposition.")
1818 Lewis H Morgan, US, etnologist (Systems of Consanguinity)
1879 Joseph Stalin, [Dzoegashvili], Russian dictator; murdered at least 11,000,000 people
1892 Walter Hagen (golf champion: U.S. Open [1914 & 1919], British Open [1922, 1924, 1928-29], PGA [1921, 1924-27])
1908 Pat Weaver (President of NBC-TV, credited with the idea for Today and Tonight shows; father of actress, Sigourney Weaver)
1911 Josh Gibson, pro baseball player, "Negro Babe Ruth" (hit 800+ HRs)
1918 Donald Regan, White House staffer/US Secretary of Treasury (1981-85)
1918 Kurt Waldheim Nazi/4th UN Secretary-General (1972-81)/Austrian President (1986-92)
1922 Paul Winchell, NYC, ventriloquist (Jerry Mahoney, Knucklehead Smith)
1926 Joe Paterno (football coach: Penn State)
1935 Phil Donahue (TV talk show host: Donahue; husband of Marlo Thomas)
1937 Jane Fonda (Academy Award-winning actress/traitor)
1940 Frank Zappa (musician, songwriter, singer: group: Mothers of Invention)
1940 Ray Hildebrand, "Paul" of the duo Paul and Paula
1954 Chris Evert (tennis champion)
1959 Florence Griffith Joyner (Flo-Jo) (track star:

Deaths which occurred on December 21:
0918 Conrad I Duke of Franconia/German King (911-918), dies
1429 Jacquemart de Blaharies, Tournay "heretic", burned to death
1937 Frank Kellog, US foreign minister (Nobel 1929), dies at 80
1940 F Scott Fitzgerald, author (Zelda, The Great Gatsby), dies of a heart attack at 44
1945 George S Patton, US General (Sicily/Normandy), dies from injuries recieved in car crash at 60
1948 Seishiro Itagaki, Japanese General/min of War, hanged
1992 Albert King US blues singer/guitarist (Crosscut Saw), dies at 71
1994 Dean Rusk, US Sect of State, dies at 85

Reported: MISSING in ACTION
1966 GLENN DANNY ELLOY---MUSKOGEE OK.
[03/04/73 RELEASED BY DRV, ALIVE AND WELL 98]
1967 SCURLOCK LEE D.---RESTFUL LAKE OH.
1968 ALLEE RICHARD K.---PORT JERVIS NY.
[REMAINS RETURNED 1996 REMAINS IDENTIFIED 04/30/98]
1972 BEBUS CHARLES J.---MINNEAPOLIS MN.
[REMAINS RETURNED 11/88]
1972 BEENS LYNN R.---SALT LAKE CITY UT.
[03/27/73 RELEASED BY DRV, ALIVE IN 98]
1972 BIRCH JOEL RAY---PHOENIZ AZ.
[NOT ON OFFICIAL DIA LIST. PARTIAL REMS RECOVERED 1972]
1972 CRADDOCK RANDALL J.---NORMAN OK.
[REMAINS RETURNED 05/89]
1972 CAFFARELLI CHARLES J.TYRONE PA.
1972 DARR CHARLES E.---LITTLE ROCK AR.
[CREW MEMBERS BODY RETURNED REMAINS RETURNED 1988]
1972 DICKENS DELMA E.---OMEGA GA.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 ELLIOTT ROBERT T.---EL DORADO AR.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 FENTER CHARLES F.---TUCSON AZ.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85 FAMILY NOT ACCEPT]
1972 FULLER JAMES R.---CIBOLO TX.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 GOULD FRANK A.---NEW YORK NY.
1972 GRAUSTEIN ROBERT STEWART---FRYEBURG ME.
[REMAINS RETURNED 12/04/85]
1972 HART THOMAS T. III---ORLANDO FL.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 HEGGEN KEITH R.---RENWICK IA.
[03/13/74 REMAINS RETURNED]
1972 HIGDON KENNETH H.---SAN FRANCISCO CA.
[02/12/73 RELEASED BY DRV INJURED, ALIVE IN 99]
1972 JOHNSON EDWARD H.---NEWBURG OR.
[NO SUBSQUENT INTEL INFO, REMAINS RETURNED 05/89]
1972 KIRBY BOBBY A.---ALTANTA GA.
[REMAINS RETURNED 07/25/89]
1972 KROBOTH STANLEY N.---SAVANNAH GA.
[DEAD, REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 LAGERWALL HARRY R.---CARMEL NY.
[DEAD REMAINS RECOVERED 02/21/85]
1972 LILES ROBERT L. JR.---SHREVEPORT LA.
[DEAD REMAINS RECOVERED 02/21/85]
1972 LOCKHART GEORGE B.---SULPHUR SPRINGS TX.
[REMAINS RETURNED 04/89]
1972 LOLLAR JAMES L.---KILMICHAEL MS.
[03/29/73 RELEASED BY DRV]
1972 LYNN ROBERT R.---JACKSONVILLE IL.
[REMAINS RETURNED 06/89]
1972 MAC DONALD GEORGE D.---EVANSTON IL.
[DEAD, REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85, ID RECINDED]
1972 MEDER PAUL O.---JAMICA NY.
[REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 NAGAHIRO JAMES Y.---HONOLULU HI.
[03/29/73 RELEASED BY DRV, ALIVE IN 98]
1972 NAKAGAWA GORDON R.---NEW CASTLE CA.
[03/29/73 RELEASED BY DRV, ALIVE AND WELL 98]
1972 PERRY RONALD D.---GALLATIN TN.
[12/21/75 SRV RETURNED REMAINS]
1972 REAID ROLLIE K.---DORA AL.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/01/85]
1972 WADE BARTON S.---JASPER IN.
[REMAINS RETURNED 12/04/85]
1972 WALSH FRANCIS A.---WESTPORT CT. D
[EAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85]
1972 WALTERS DONOVAN K.---LEBANON NE.
[REMAINS RETURNED 12/15/88]
1972 WINNINGHAM JOHN Q.---GROVER CITY CA.
[DEAD REMAINS RETURNED 02/21/85

POW / MIA Data & Bios supplied by
the P.O.W. NETWORK. Skidmore, MO. USA.
Information on how to RETURN a bracelet.

On this day...
1163 Hurricane hits villages in Holland/Friesland, causing floods
1561 Archbishop Granvelle installed
1582 Flanders adopts Gregorian calendar, tomorrow is Jan 1 1583
1620 103 Mayflower pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock
1688 Pro-James II-earl of Devonshire occupies Nottingham
1762 James Cook marries Elizabeth Batts
1784 John Jay becomes 1st US Secretary of State (foreign affairs)
1788 Hue Tay Son becomes emperor Quang Trung of Vietnam
1829 1st stone arch railroad bridge in US dedicated, Baltimore
1849 1st US skating club formed (Philadelphia)
1864 General Sherman conquers Savannah
1866 Cheyennes, Arapho's, Sioux, Fetterman Massacre
1891 18 students play 1st basketball game (Springfield College)
1898 Scientists Pierre & Marie Curie discover radium
1907 Dutch government of De Master falls due to war budget
1909 University of Copenhagen rejects Cook's claim that he was 1st to North Pole
1909 1st junior high school established (Berkeley CA)
1910 Explosion in coal mine in Hulton England, 344 mine workers dies
1913 1st crossword puzzle (with 32 clues) printed in New York World
1914 1st feature-length silent film comedy, "Tillie's Punctured Romance" released (starring Marie Dressler, Mabel Normand & Charles Chaplin)
1919 J Edgar Hoover deports anarchists/feminist Emma Goldman to Russia
1921 Supreme Court rules labor injunctions & picketing unconstitutional
1923 Nepal changes from British protectorate to independent nation
1925 Eisenstein's movie Potemkin premieres in Moscow
1929 1st US group hospital insurance plan instituted, Dallas TX
1932 Fred Astaire & Ginger Rogers, 1st joint movie (Flying Down to Rio)
1933 Dried human blood serum 1st prepared, University of Pennsylvania
1933 20th Century Fox signs Shirley Temple, 5, to a studio contract
1937 1st feature-length color & sound cartoon premieres (Disney's Snow White)
1941 German submarine U-567 sinks
1942 US Supreme court declares Nevada separation legal
1946 Earthquake in South Japan, kills 1,086
1946 Frank Capra's "It's a Wonderful Life" premieres
1948 State of Eire (formerly Irish Free State) declares its independence
1951 Joe DiMaggio announces his retirement
1954 Dr Sam Sheppard is convicted of his wife, Marilyn's murder
1957 Indonesia proclaims end to state of war
1958 Charles De Gaulle wins 7 year term as 1st President of 5th Republic of France
1959 Citizens of Deerfield IL block building of interracial housing
1959 Shah of Persia marries Farah Diba
1959 Tom Landry accepts coaching job with Dallas Cowboys 1962 US & Cuba accord, releases bay of pigs captive
1966 USSR launches Luna 13; soft-landed in Oceanus Procellarum
1968 Apollo 8 (Frank Borman, Jim Lovell & Bill Anders) 1st manned Moon voyage
1968 David Crosby, Stephen Stills & Graham Nash premiere together in California
1969 Vince Lombardi (Redskins) coaches his last football game, losing
1971 UN Security Council chooses Kurt Waldheim as 4th Secretary General
1972 Soviet Union signs a separate peace with East Germany
1975 Madagascar adopts constitution
1976 UN General Assembly passes a resolution declaring 1979-Year of Child
1976 US performs nuclear test at Nevada Test Site
1978 Police in Des Plaines IL, arrest John Wayne Gacy Jr for murder
1979 Zimbabwe adopts constitution
1984 USSR launches Vega 2 for fly-by of Halley's Comet
1985 ARCO Anchorage runs aground near Port Angeles WA
1985 Heart's "Heart" album goes #1
1987 3 white New York teens convicted of manslaughter in death of a black man
1987 Soyuz TM-4 carries 3 cosmonauts (Musa Manarov, Anatoly Levchenko & Vladimir Titov) to space station Mir
1988 Drexel agrees guilt to security felonies, pays a $650 million fine
1988 New York bound Pan Am jumbo jet (Flight 103) explodes over Scotland, killing all 259 people on the plane and 11 people on the ground
1989 Romania's dictator Nicolae Ceausescu's final speech (he is executed 12/25)
1989 US invades Panamá and ousts General Noriega
1989 Vice-President Quayle sends out 30,000 Xmas cards with word beacon spelled beakon
1991 El Sayid Nosair acquitted of killing Meir Kahane
1991 Soviet Union formally dissolves 11 of 12 republics sign treaty forming Commonwealth of Independent States
1994 Bomb goes off on #4 train on Fulton Street NYC
1995 Martina Ertl of Germany wins her 3rd giant slalom world cup
1995 San Francisco Giants announce plans to build a new stadium to open in 2000
1997 Detroit Lions Barry Sanders is 3rd to run for 2,000 yards in a season
2000 President-elect Bush resigned as governor of Texas; Lt. Gov. Rick Perry was sworn in to replace him.

Holidays
Note: Some Holidays are only applicable on a given "day of the week"

Nepál : Independence Day/Unity Day (1923)
Plymouth MA : Forefathers' Day (1620)
US : California Kiwifruit Day
US : Humbug Day
US : Look on the Bright Side Day
US : National Flashlight Day.
World : Flower Day
Art and Architecture Books Month
Winter Solstice in No Hemisphere, shortest day of year
Summer Solstice in So Hemisphere, longest day of the year

Religious Observances
Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican : Commemoration of St Thomas the apostle
Roman Catholic : Memorial of St Peter Canisius, priest & doctor (optional)

Religious History
1672 Birth of Benjamin Schmolck, German Lutheran clergyman. Though a busy pastor, Schmolck found time to pen 900 hymns, the best remembered of them being "My Jesus, As Thou Wilt."
1672 Birth of Johann Christoph Schwedler, German clergyman and author of the hymn, "Ask Ye What Great Thing I Know." Schwedler penned more than 500 hymns during his life, many stressing the joyÂfilled confidence available to every Christian believer.
1776 Anglican clergyman and hymnwriter John Newton wrote in a letter: 'It is necessary that our sharpest trials should sometimes spring from our dearest comforts, else we should be in danger of forgetting ourselves and setting up our rest here.'
1835 Oglethorpe University was chartered in Milledgeville, Georgia under Presbyterian auspices. In 1913 the campus was moved to Atlanta.
1843 Irish Catholic religious Frances Ward, 33, first arrived in the U.S. in Pittsburgh, where she afterward helped establish successive convents of the Sisters of Mercy, both in Chicago and in Loretto, Pennsylvania.

Source: William D. Blake. ALMANAC OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. Minneapolis: Bethany House, 1987.

Thought for the day :
"To shorten winter, borrow some money due in spring."

Question of the day...
If a pig loses its voice, is it disgruntled?

Murphys Law of the day...(Issawi's Law of Consumption Patterns)
Other people's patterns of expenditure and consumption are highly irrational and slightly immoral.

From the cornucopia of oddments and exotica...
An ostrich's eye is bigger than it's brain.

Holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit. —2 Peter 1:21

I'll trust in God's unchanging Word
Till soul and body sever;
For though all things shall pass away,
His Word shall stand forever! —Luther

You can trust the Bible—God always keeps His word.

"One consequence of the explosion was the ejection of the Captain, Don Luis Goni, up a ventilation shaft and into the sea where he was later seen swimming ashore with one arm around the ship's mascot, a tame llama."

How to explain that one to the wife and kids back home...

Good Sunday morning to you all!

Not a bad day. My Vikings won yesterday and my family is on the way to bring in some of what Santa brought them.

Good morning snopercod.

I saw this information out there but had no time to contact the author. LOL. Thanks for posting it.

In 1879 a Lay weapon was fired from the Peruvian ironclad Huascar at a Chilean ship. Half-way to the target the weapon turned around and "hurtled" at 15 knots back at the mother ship despite the frantic knob twiddling of the operator. The ship was saved by the heroic action of a ship's officer who swam out to intercept the weapon and deflect it. Wow!

And....Mr. Cunningham, an American shoemaker, built rocket torpedoes and once celebrated the 4th July by setting off one of his torpedoes up the town's main street. It shot off at high speed scaring old ladies and horses and finally came to rest in the butcher's shop where it set fire to the icebox. Those were exciting days!

The advantages of blunt noses on torpedoes might also have been realised earlier if the first torpedoists had studied the salmon. But WHY is the blunt nose more effiecient and faster than the pointy-ends?

'Morning, Snippy! Fascinating history lesson today!

1945 George S Patton, US General (Sicily/Normandy), dies from injuries recieved in car crash at 60

"Don't forget, you men don't know that I'm here. No mention of that fact is to be made in any letters. The world is not supposed to know what the hell happened to me. I'm not supposed to be commanding this Army. I'm not even supposed to be here in England. Let the first bastards to find out be the Goddamned Germans. Some day I want to see them raise up on their piss-soaked hind legs and howl, 'Jesus Christ, it's the Goddamned Third Army again and that son-of-a-fucking-bitch Patton'."

"Live for something rather than die for nothing."

He was one of a kind, may God keep him eternally.

Good morning Mayor.

How to explain that one to the wife and kids back home...

Can you imagine? It's like being shot out of a cannon. LOL.

Wow, really cool reading. Thanks, Snippy.

Good morning Colonel. So your shopping went well? Finished?