The main source of this research is Lieutenant Colonel Enrique Sandoval Castarrica?s "Historia Oficial de la Fuerza A?a Expedicionaria Mexicana."
Most of the support for the unit?s history and operations data comes from original documents found in the Historical Research Agency at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. It includes insights of participants in the training conducted in the US and the operations of this unit in the Philippines and Formosa.
"M?co, al adherirse a la causa de las Naciones Unidas, expres? la firme resoluci?n de coadyuvar por todos los medios posibles a la victoria final de las democracias, aceptando conscientemente las altas responsabilidades que un pueblo libre debe asumir, cuando se ven en peligro, junto con el prestigio de su soberan? los ideales que norman su existencia y que son base de sus instituciones, honra de su pasado, preocupaci?n intensa de su presente y garant?eficaz de su porvenir." ?
President Manuel Avila Camacho Mexico?s participation in the Second World War against the Axis powers is seldom mentioned in history books. In the few works that acknowledge Mexico?s participation, the support with raw materials and labor force to the Allied war effort receives considerably more attention than the actual contribution in combat. This relationship reflects the perceived overall contribution of the country to the Allied cause in World War II, but unfortunately, adds to the lack of information about Mexico?s only unit participating in combat overseas?the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force (MEAF).
The MEAF was part of the Allied forces in the South West Pacific Area (SWPA) in World War II. The organization of its operational unit?the 201st Fighter Squadron? was mostly the result of coordination in the Joint Mexican-United States Defense Commission (JMUSDC). The 201st Squadron, through Lend-Lease Agreement, trained in the United States from August 1944 to March 1945 and was equipped to conduct.2 combat operations. The preparation of the MEAF culminated with its successful employment in the SWPA from June to August 1945. The participation of the MEAF in World War II, was not an ordinary accomplishment; especially if we consider that this was the first occasion that Mexico?s government sent forces to fight outside of the country?s territory. To understand the significance of Mexico?s decision to send forces overseas, it is necessary to briefly review the country?s history and the impact of the Second World War.
The Traditional Position of Mexico A recurrent event in Mexico?s history is the country defending against acts of external aggression. After Mexico?s independence in 1821, the country was invaded several times, lost more than half its territory, and suffered foreign intervention repeatedly. Reparation for war damages on foreign nationals? property was used on many occasions as justification for military action against Mexico. The last cases of military intervention happened during the Mexican Revolution. From April to November 1914 US forces occupied Veracruz in the Gulf of Mexico, to deny European support to Victoriano Huerta.
World War I started on August 1914. In March 1916, US forces initiated the Punitive Expedition against Francisco Villa?the outlaw who attacked Columbus, New Mexico. The people and government of Mexico opposed both interventions, always recurring to law and international support. The relations of Mexico and the US remained tense during most of World War I, until the withdrawal of the US troops. The last formation of the retreating US forces reached the border on February 5, 1917, the same day of the promulgation of the actual Constitution of Mexico. 1 This is the legal foundation of the Mexican Armed Forces, and signals the initial step in the professionalization of the Mexican military.
The single person that most contributed to both the US forces leaving Mexico and the promulgation of the Constitution was Don Venustiano Carranza. The Mexican principles of international politics, also known as Estrada Doctrine, are basically a continuation of the posture adopted by Carranza, who solved an international conflict through law, not force. The essence of this doctrine is Mexico?s freedom, sovereignty, independence, and equality to all countries of the world before International Law. Hence, the country?s history and international posture made appear the participation of Mexican forces overseas almost impossible.
The events brought by World War II showed differently. Mexico and the Second World War World War II changed in many ways Mexico?s international relations. World War II was a total war, and its economic aspects included the cooperation of countries distant from the battlefields. The Allied nations, the US in particular, increased efforts to align on its side the Latin American countries, reducing the influence of the Axis powers in the continent. The US?s "Good Neighbor" policy and the inclination of Mexico to support the cause of democracies, were probably the main reasons for greater cooperation among the two countries. Mexico?s traditional opposition to imperialism contributed to the country?s antagonism against totalitarian governments.
Before the war, Mexico participated in the economic blockade to Italy after the annexation of Ethiopia in 1935. Later, Mexico maintained recognition to legitimate governments in exile after the military occupation of their countries. Mexico also supported the Republicans in Spain. Those actions manifested Mexico?s commitment to the cause of Democracies. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Mexico broke relations with the Axis powers, adopted defensive measures, and increased cooperation with the US. Mexico and the US continued negotiations and both countries reached political, economic, and military agreements to ensure cooperation.
One of these agreements was the creation of the Joint. Mexican-United States Defense Commission (JMUSDC) for coordination of military concerns. Support to Allied nations was not limited to greater cooperation with the US. Mexico also resumed relations with Great Britain in October 1941. Both countries had exchanged notes and suspended diplomatic relations after Mexico nationalized its oil industry in March 1938. The Second World War helped to solve this conflict.
The enlargement of the theater of war after Pearl Harbor reached Mexico. German U-boats expanded their area of operations after December 1941, to include the Atlantic coast of the US and the Gulf of Mexico. Two Mexican oil ships sank after submarine attacks in May 1942. This caused Mexico?s declaration of war against the Axis Powers. After Mexico entered the war, the country increased defensive measures and cooperation with the US. The obligatory military service, civil defense, and the creation of a Supreme Council of National Defense were some of the actions of Mexico.
The Mexican Army deployed in the Pacific Military Region to defend the Mexican territory from Axis forces, while the US counterpart defended north of the border. This cooperation, based on mutual respect, was a completely new relationship, in contrast to the complicated and tense situation during World War I. The participation of the Mexican military was not limited to territorial defense.
The Navy and the Air Force patrolled the coast of Mexico on antisubmarine missions. The latter also participated in combat with a military force overseas. It was the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force with the 201st Squadron; a small unit representing the Mexican military. This was something new for Mexico, and it required the organization of a capable unit. Organizational Development Whereas to shift the weight of effort on the ground from one point to another takes time, the flexibility inherent in Air Forces permits them without change of base to be switched from one objective to another in the theater of operations. ?
Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery Mexico?s declaration of war against the Axis powers demanded hostile action against the adversary. Mexico wanted to participate, together with Allied forces, with a small but significant military organization. An aerial unit offered the best option for the employment of an effective Mexican force overseas. 1
Different considerations helped this decision. Status of Mexican Aviation before World War II Aviation in Mexico developed as a component of military forces during the Mexican Revolution. The first military exercise in Mexico that included employment of an aircraft took place in February 1911. The exercise consisted in the reconnaissance of an area near Mexico city, to locate and bomb (with oranges) a hidden artillery battery. 2 Aviation became a part of the forces fighting the revolution, and probably the first aerial engagement and air to surface attack occurred in Mexican territory.
The origins of the Mexican Air Force (MAF) go back to Carranza?s forces. The Constitutionalist Army?s Aviation branch was created on February 5, 1915. The same.8 year, on November 15, the National Shops of Aeronautical Constructions and the National School of Aviation were born. These organizations evolved, changing name and location several times, and were the main source of technicians and pilots when Mexico entered the war.
The training of Mexican pilots was a responsibility of the Military Aviation School. Many generations of pilots graduated from this school, which had moved recently to a new Base built in 1941. When Mexico declared war on the Axis powers the requirements for trained personnel increased significantly, and the school became insufficient. In 1944 the school had 18 instructors and over 500 students. The MAF had 425 officers (225 pilots) and 1,350 enlisted men. 3
The Mexican Army used different types of aircraft, for the training of pilots and for its operational needs. Most of the equipment was obsolete when Mexico entered the war. In July 31, 1942, in addition to a variety of biplanes and one Ryan STM-150, there were on service a dozen Vought OS2U-3 Kingfisher and North American AT-6 Texan, received earlier that year. 4
Civilian aviation did not offer a great amount of additional means to solve problems created by the war; so, a growth and modernization program started. Mexico increased its military power significantly after the country entered the war. The US Lend-Lease Law permitted agreements to obtain material and ammunitions. Air power increased significantly in comparison to the status prior to the war. In 1944 Mexico?s military aviation included 70 AT-6, 24 AT-11, and 30 A-24B dive bombers. 5
The Aviation Department received the official name Mexican Air Force on February 10, 1944. The following month, the President of Mexico made known that if Mexican forces.9 were to participate in combat, it would be the MAF personnel who would be representing the country?s military. Probably different reasons contributed to the decision of sending Aviation personnel to war. They could have been among others: the language knowledge, previous experience, and the nature of training.
Most pilots and maintenance personnel had some knowledge of the English language; this reduced the problem of communication with Allied forces. Also, some pilots had already received flight training in the US Army Air Corps and Navy. 6 Finally, a relatively high amount of training would be of technical nature, benefiting the modernization effort of the Mexican military.
The implementation of this decision required thorough coordination. The Joint Mexican-United States Defense Commission The Joint Mexican-United States Defense Commission (JMUSDC) was the primary mechanism for coordination of the US and Mexican military. It was constituted on February 1942, to coordinate actions related to the common defense of both countries. Most of the initial coordination took place in Washington, DC, and the head of the Mexican part was Mexico?s Military Attach?Brigadier General Luis Alamillo Flores. The agenda of the JMUSDC included a program to coordinate activities of the Mexican Pacific Military Region and the US Western Defense Command and Western Sea Frontier Command. 7 It also contemplated advance training in US schools. 8
The JMUSDC also handled the military part of Lend-Lease to Mexico. According to one author the Mexican Army received equipment, including tanks and airplanes, for about $18,000,000 to pay at a discount price. By 1949 Mexico had paid the $6,000,000.10 price set on the equipment. 9 The Lend-Lease agreement covered the cost of the program related to the training and equipment of the MEAF, whose organization was discussed in the JMUSDC. 10
The organization of an aerial unit to be employed in combat overseas, representing the Mexican military, offered many advantages for both countries. Operational and tactical considerations favored such an organization. An aerial unit would be able to concentrate the military power of a small unit against different objectives in the Theater of Operations, in contrast with the requirement for a larger ground force deployed in the front. Strategic considerations also supported this type of organization. An aerial unit could better seek combat with a retreating adversary force, which was the overall war situation since 1942.
Many other aspects indicated that the best option for a military force overseas was an Air Force unit. One important consideration was that there would be a lower number of people participating in training in the US and in the operations overseas. This reduced the chances of incidents that could affect the program, and contributed to reduce the expected amount of casualties, which combat experience showed were higher for ground forces.
In addition, there was the experience in the US of the organization and training of a Brazilian aerial unit that fought in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. The coordination resulted in the organization of a Mexican Squadron, which later became the operational unit of the MEAF. As a result of this coordination, on July 1944 Mexico organized a group to receive advanced training in the US. The group developed around the MAF?s existing 201st Air Squadron, augmented with personnel selected from different Army and Air Force organizations. 11.11 Organization and proficiency were key considerations during the organization of the Squadron.
The unit?s organization was to be the same as a P-47 squadron in the United States Army Air Forces, in accordance to the corresponding Tables of Organization. The required Standards of Proficiency were identical to those of the same type of unit in the US. 12 These considerations guided the planning of the training and the requirements of the trainees for the ground and flight echelons. Coordination in the JMUSDC allowed agreement on a training plan for the Fighter Squadron, presented on July 10, 1944. 13
The plan considered approximately 42 officers and 249 enlisted men, most of them fluent in English if possible, to arrive to Randolph Field, TX, not later than July 25, 1944. Training included three broad areas: 1. Individual training. During five weeks on different bases, starting August 1, 1944. 2. Unit training. For two months on Pocatello Air Base, Idaho, from September 10 to November 10, 1944. In P-47 aircraft, under supervision of Commanding General 2nd Air Force, and according to Standard 10-1-1. 3. Replacement training. If necessary, to start four months prior to the date required.
After January 1945, when the governments of Mexico and the US reached an agreement regarding the participation of the Mexican Squadron overseas, the JMUSDC also coordinated details for the employment of the force. The agreement established the participation of the Mexican Squadron, accompanied by a senior officer and a small staff group. The Squadron and adjutant personnel were to be handled as an integral part of the US Army, with exceptions in the Command, Administration, Expenses, and Equipment and Supply. 14 The Command and Control coordination are particularly important due to the terms of the Agreement.
The Commander of the Squadron had been a Mexican Colonel, and it did not represent any problem during training. However, the Mexican Congress approval.12 for the participation of a force overseas and the terms of the agreement with the US government for such participation, required changes. The regular Command line for a US P-47 Squadron, normally commanded by a Major or Captain, was a Fighter Group headed usually by a Colonel or Lieutenant Colonel. The rank of the Commander of the 201st Squadron was higher than usual, a normal designation for independent forces, but unnecessary for the agreed structure.
Since the Squadron would be operating under tactical tasking from a US Fighter Group, it was necessary to appoint a new Commander. A Mexican officer, qualified to command in accordance with the standards applied for selection of a commander for a Fighter Squadron in the US Army, was to be in command of the Squadron. As a result, Captain Radam?Gaxiola Andrade was appointed for this position after the creation of the MEAF. 15
The Mexican government, given the importance that this force represented for Mexico and in accordance to the nature of its mission, created the MEAF. This organization was the Squadron?s superior unit overseas, except in tactical tasking. The commander of the MEAF was the senior Mexican officer accompanying the Squadron, and he represented the Mexican Army in matters pertaining the Squadron. The Mexican government appointed for this position to Col Antonio C?enas Rodr?ez, the previous Commander of the 201st Squadron. His responsibility included to further the administrative efficiency of the MEAF, and foster good relations with other United Nations troops. He disposed of a small staff group to assist the training and operations of the 201st Squadron..13 Col C?enas received instructions from Mexico?s Secretary of Defense on March 1945, regarding the MEAF mission performance overseas. 16
They contemplated a variety of details, including organization, command, legal and disciplinary aspects, administration, logistics, payment, and communications. These instructions established the organization of the MEAF, which included: 1. Command and Staff. 2. 201st Fighter Squadron. 17 3. Replacements. The JMUSDC also coordinated the MEAF deployment to the SWPA. The Mexican Government preferred to participate in the liberation of the Philippines, due to the historical and cultural connections among both nations. This decision proved beneficial beyond the combat aspect, since the MEAF personnel also became a "valuable social contact with the Spanish speaking Filipinos." Training and Equipment Train as you intend to fight, and fight as you trained. ?Principle of training
The training of the MEAF took place in the US and overseas. Activities in the US involved Individual and Unit training. The purpose was to create a force able to operate independently, integrated with the US forces. Adaptation to the US system and procedures was a requirement to permit integration on the battlefield. Training continued after deployment in the Theater of Operations. There were many obstacles in the training, but important lessons were learned. The Training in the United States The Mexican group of approximately 300 men entered the US on Laredo, TX, on July 25, 1944. They would become part of the first Mexican military organization to leave the country with a war mission.
They arrived to Randolph, TX for initial processing. 1 All personnel took a medical exam, and the pilots also took a flight examination. Individual training started as early as August 1, 1944. The Squadron divided according to specialties and went to different training centers. The largest groups went to Pocatello, Idaho and the Republic Aviation Corporation in Farmingdale, Long Island,.16 N.Y. Others went to Boca Rat?n, Florida., and Scot Field, IL. Training for the ground echelon consisted basically of instruction in English, basic military subjects, and on the job training in different specialties. 2 Instructors and trainees worked hard to accomplish the mission.
"In the opinion of their instructors, the Mexican maintenance men were demonstrating a commendable seriousness of purpose, initiative, and comprehension." 3 The pilots commenced a refresher training in Foster Field, TX that terminated in October 1944. Twenty seven pilots were needed to fill the Tables of Organization, and the original training plan included eleven replacements. They flew transition, formation, instruments, navigation, night flying, and strafing missions in the AT-6 and P-40 aircraft. Two pilots were considered not apt for the training and returned to Mexico in August 1944, together with six enlisted men eliminated in the medical exam. 4
After individual training finished, the Squadron concentrated in Pocatello, Idaho for unit training. The purpose of unit training was to create a force able to operate independently. On October 20, 1944, the only absences were the Intelligence Officer and six radar men. The Second Air Force, to assist in the unit?s training, organized Section "I" in Pocatello, Idaho, in August 1944. This organization, commanded by Captain Paul B. Miller, included instructors and interpreters selected for their technical knowledge and ability to speak Spanish. 7 Lieutenant Colonel Arthur W. Kellond replaced Captain Miller in February 1945, and Section "I" changed to Squadron; it was disbanded in March 1945.
Ten members of this unit, including Lt. Col Kellond, remained on temporary duty with the 201st Squadron, and accompanied the MEAF overseas. Flying training in the new aircraft started on 22 October 1944 with good results, attributed to the pilots flying experience. They "proved to be well above average as a whole." The pilots flew a minimum of three sorties in the Vultee BT-13 aircraft, before flying the P-47.
The complete training program was the standard for US pilots, and it included 120 flight hours, in five phases. Appendix B provides more information about the Flying training program. The pilots soon demonstrated their flying ability, and during the first week, all except one had been "checked out" in the P-47.
The Commander of Section "I" proclaimed the Mexican pilots "considerably above average" in judgment, technique, take-off, landings, and in general performance. He also reported on 16 December 1944 that "their formation flying ranged from excellent to superior." 10.18
Inclement weather on the winter of 1944 prevented flying activities in Pocatello. The MEAF wanted to be ready to participate in combat, and when weather permitted the 201st Squadron aircraft were the first to be ready to flight. To solve this problem and continue training, the MEAF relocated to Majors Field, TX on November 30, 1944. 11
The Mexican Senate authorized the President to send Mexican troops overseas on December 29, 1944. On February 2, 1945, the pilots were ready to start gunnery training, the final phase of the 201st Squadron training program.
The unit moved to Brownsville Army Air Field, TX for this training; but unfortunately, weather continued to be a delaying factor. The higher score for air to air impacts was almost 25 %, and the best results for air to ground strafing were over 30 %. 12 The unit completed gunnery training, and returned to Majors Field, TX on March 14, 1945. The training of replacement pilots and ground personnel started on February 1945. On March sixteen pilots were flying the refresher course.
Ten were almost ready to fly the P-47, and six were about a month behind. Considering the attrition rate, at least nine replacement pilots would be ready on July 28, 1945, and five more a month later. The replacement training plan considered forty-eight more pilots for refresher and P-47 training. 13 The training, initially conducted at Foster Field, TX, was changed to Napier Field, Alabama, near Maxwell Field. Maxwell was the home of the Air Corps Tactical School, the US center for development of air power tactics and strategy.
After finishing the unit training, the MEAF, which received the Mexican Flag on February 22, 1945, was ready to go overseas. The pilots went to Topeka, Kansas, for final processing by the 21st Bombardment Wing, and the ground personnel left Majors.19 Field by train on 18 March. The MEAF departed San Francisco, California, onboard the Fairislile on March 27, and arrive to Manila Bay on April 30, 1945.
The Training in the Theater of Operations. The MEAF debarked in the Philippines on May 1, 1945. General George C. Kenney, the Commander of the US Army and Allied Air Forces in the SWPA, wrote about this event in his memoirs: That afternoon Colonel Cardenas, the commander of the Mexican Expeditionary Force, landed at Manila with the 201st Mexican Fighter Squadron.
After a reception at the pier I took Cardenas over to see General MacArthur, and after the official exchange of greetings, the Mexicans were officially assigned to my command. They then proceeded to Clark Field, where I turned them over to Brigadier General Freddy Smith with instructions to outfit them with P-47s and give them a course of advanced combat training before putting them into action. Both officers and enlisted men were a fine-looking lot and seem anxious to get to work against the Japs as soon as possible.
Colonel C?enas with the MEAF personnel established at Fort Stotsenburg in Clark Field, located about 40 NM Northwest of Manila. Some MEAF elements were assigned to the Fifth Fighter Command as Liaison officers. The 201st Squadron established in Porac, in the Clark Field?s area, and was attached to the 58th Fighter Group, Fifth Fighter Command, Fifth Air Force, US Far East Air Forces.
