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http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?cat=93

Herbs
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Parsley, Queen of the Meadows
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:37 in Herbs | viewed 37 times and users have made 0 comments so far

About the descriptions: The following herbal descriptions will be derived from many different sources. At first we will include mainly Mrs. M. Grieve, from her book “A Modern Herbal”, but will be adding more shortly. The publishing of the following opinions,... (Continue reading)
Herbal Medicinal Properties: Black Haw to Cascara
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:36 in Herbs | viewed 42 times and users have made 0 comments so far

About the descriptions: The following herbal descriptions will be derived from many different sources. At first we will include mainly Mrs. M. Grieve, from her book “A Modern Herbal”, but will be adding more shortly. The publishing of the following... (Continue reading)
Herbs Ca - Co
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:36 in Herbs | viewed 36 times and users have made 0 comments so far

Herbal Medicinal Properties Table of Contents Catnip: Nepeta Cataria Catnip: Unicaria Tomentosa Cayenne: Capsicum Minimum / Capsicum Anuum Chamomile: Matricaria Chamomille Chaparral: Larrea Tridentata Chaste Tree: Chickweed: Stellaria Media Chickweed: Cinnamon: Cinnamomum Zeylanicum Cinnamon: Cleavers: Galium Aparine Cleavers: Clove: Eugenia Caryophyllata Clove: Coltsfoot: Tussilago Farfara Catnip: Nepeta Cataria (Mrs. M. Grieve) Carminative, tonic, diaphoretic,... (Continue reading)
Herbal Medicinal Properties: Elder to Gingko
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:35 in Herbs | viewed 39 times and users have made 0 comments so far

Medicinal Action and Uses On account of its aromatic and carminative properties, Fennel fruit is chiefly used medicinally with purgatives to allay their tendency to griping and for this purpose forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound Liquorice Powder.... (Continue reading)
Herbal Medicinal Properties: Marshmallow to Oregon Grape
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:35 in Herbs | viewed 39 times and users have made 0 comments so far

The following herbal descriptions will be derived from many different sources. At first we will include mainly Mrs. M. Grieve, from her book “A Modern Herbal”, but will be adding more shortly. The publishing of the following opinions, though all... (Continue reading)
Herbs: As Used By Native Americans
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:34 in Herbs | viewed 69 times and users have made 0 comments so far

AMERICAN MISTLETOE - Phoradendron Glavescens AMERICAN ELDER - S. Canadensis (Honeysuckle Family) AMERICAN HOLLY - Yaupon (I. vomitoria) AMERICAN CHESTNUT - Castanea Dentate BALSAM FIR - Abies Balsamea BEECH TREE - Fagus grandifolia BIG SAGEBRUSH - Artemisia Tridentata BIRTHROOT - Trillium Erectum BLACK BIRCH - Betula Lenta BLACK COHOSH... (Continue reading)
Herbal Medicines
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:33 in Herbs | viewed 41 times and users have made 0 comments so far

Subject: YEAR 2000 HEALTHCARE eLETTER, NO 4 Date: Wednesday, August 25, 1999 6:45:49 AM From: kenton@compwellness.com To: 2kHealth@onelist.com YEAR 2000 HEALTHCARE eLETTERTM Volume 1, Issue 4 – Monday, August 23, 1999 This is a free, bi-weekly email newsletter on healthcare, focusing on year 2000 needs and full-spectrum – complementary — healthcare methods.... (Continue reading)
Capsaicin - Spice, Medicine and Pepper Spray
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:33 in Herbs | viewed 194 times and users have made 0 comments so far

Some people tend to use the terms - capsaicin and oleoresin capsicum interchangeably. They’re not the same. Capsaicin The most commonly mentioned of the capsaicinoids. All hot peppers contain capsaicinoids. Natural substances that produce a burning sensation in the mouth or on... (Continue reading)
Ginseng to Horsetail
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:32 in Herbs | viewed 36 times and users have made 0 comments so far

Siberian Ginseng: Eleutherococcus senticosus David Hoffman, N.D.: Actions: Adaptogen, a circulatory stimulant, vasodilator. Indications: This herb may safely be used to increase stamina in the face of undue demands and stress. These may be physical or mental?they are one to... (Continue reading)
Herbal First Aid
Written on 15 Mar, 2009 at 13:32 in Herbs | viewed 42 times and users have made 0 comments so far

—NUTRITION: Spirulina - A good protein source. Take Four capsules 30 minutes before lunch and 30 minutes before dinner. No food available, Spirulina can get you through until food becomes available. Super Supplemental - Take on tablet with each meal... (Continue reading)

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=826

Jelly, Honey For Pests

In the April issue of Garden Gate mag. someone wrote in and recommended making your own sticky traps. They used index cards, and honey or petroleum jelly.

Apparently some bugs are attracted to certain colors, like yellow or white. They recommended spreading honey on yellow index cards to trap aphids, thrips, and whitefies. And spread petroleum jelly on white index cards to trap plant bugs and rose chafers (so what’s a plant bug, anyway)?

Attach the cards to stakes and place them in your garden. You will have to reapply the honey every couple of days.

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=834

Living Mulches

Living mulches Cover crops are usually killed or incorporated before establishing the vegetable crop. Recently, however, there has been interest in living mulch systems where the cover crop and vegetable grow together in the field for all or part of the growing season in order to extend weed control and other cover crop benefits such as decreased traffic compaction into the growing period of the crop.

Living mulches can compete for moisture and nutrients, so they are not recommended for low-growing, shallow-rooted, or drought-susceptible vegetable crops. Because they provide habitat for beneficial insects, living mulches sometimes decrease insect-pest populations. Population of other pests may increase however. In a New York study,use of a living mulch reduced population levels of cabbage looper, imported cabbage worm, aphid, and flea beetles, but slug populations increased.

Living mulches are not appropriate for all situations. It is very importatnt for characteristics of a living mulch to complement those of the vegetable crop. A cover crop should germinate and grow in the shade and be low growing relative to the main crop. For example, a vining cover crop should be used only with tall vegetable crops (such as sweet corn). Bush type cover crops such as red clover should be used on shorter vegetables such as cabbage, peppers and determinate tomatoes.

Cover crops should not be susceptible to the same diseases as the main crop , and should not interfere with harvest. To establish a living mulch: Make sure the field is free of weeds before planting the main crop. Let the main crop grow alone for 4 to 5 weeks so it can compete successfully with the living mulch crop. Typically this point will be reached after the last cultivation.

Establish the mulch by drilling rather than broadcasting since drilling the seed gives a better stand.

Rotate living mulch types.

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=836

Pest Control

Plant a garlic clove beside the plant you want to protect. Pests of all kinds will stay away. Do not plant garlic near peas.

Basil near tomatoes will repel worms and flies.

Plant onions near carrots and beets. Onions and garlic will protect your lettuce and beans from Japanese beetles, carrot flies and aphids.

Pour boiling water on ant hills to kill ants quickly.

To protect cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, and Brussels sprouts from the cabbage moth, use mint, sage, dill, and thyme. Do not plant cabbage near strawberries.

To deter ants, use equal parts of vinegar and water to wash your countertops, floors, cabinets, etc.

Try leaving an open bottle of pennyroyal or citronella oil in your room if mosquitoes are a problem indoors. You can also rub a little apple-cider vinegar on your skin to serve as a repellant.

Aphids and spiders will stay away from plants that have been sprayed with dishwashing liquid mixed with water. Aphids will also stay away from anise and coriander.

Use a bit of cinnamon in your cupboards and drawers to get rid of silverfish.

To kill cockroaches, mix half a cup of flour, a quarter cup of sugar, and one cup of borax together. Sprinkle along the cracks and crevices where they hide.

To catch flys make your own flypaper with honey and yellow paper.

In general leave spiders alone - they are good bugs.

To make a flea powder for dogs and cats that is organic, use Pennyroyal herb or oil and mix with cornstarch and douse the critters with some… or plant it where they can roll in it.

To get rid of lice try using petroleum jelly (Vaseline). Try it, it works great. You saturate head with it, put a plastic cap on overnight and the next day they all wash right out, no need for fine tooth comb. May require several washings though…

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=830

Hydroponics

The Aztecs and Incas amazed the Spanish conquistadors with
their floating gardens, and now 500 years later you can impress your
friends and neighbors with yours.

A University of Florida extension agent has developed a floating garden
with material available at local building supply stores that costs about
$40.

The hydroponic garden’s biggest advantage is that it cuts down on pests.
“Without soil, you eliminate about half the problems that plague Florida
gardens,” said Richard Tyson, Seminole County extension agent with UF’s
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.

“There are no nematodes, weeds or major root diseases. You also have a
constant supply of water, which eliminates the need to irrigate,” he
said.

Tyson and area gardeners are growing lettuce, basil, mint, watercress,
chives, onions, beans, peas and a few flowers with the new system. “Any
plant that likes moist conditions seems to do well,” Tyson said. “Basil
goes crazy. Impatiens and marigolds love hydroponic conditions, but
periwinkles, which prefer dry land, usually decline.”

Yields are high. For example, Tyson can grow 32 heads of lettuce every
40 to 60 days. And quality is high. Five of seven varieties of lettuce
that Tyson grew were marketable size, according to a panel of experts he
had examine them.

The hydroponic contraption is simple to make. Just follow these 10 easy
steps.
1. Build a frame of 2-by-6-inch treated lumber. Tyson recommends making
the frame 4 feet, 1-inch wide by 8 feet, 1-inch long, but you may vary
the size to fit the space you have available.

2. Line the frame with 6 mil polyethylene to form a trough.

3. Fill the trough with water to a four-inch height.

4. Secure the edges of the liner to the top of the frame with
1-by-2-inch furring strips.

5. Create a floating platform from a 4-by-8-foot panel of 2-inch foam
insulation.

6. Cut holes in the insulation to hold plants in 3-ounce plastic
bathroom cups or 8-ounce foam coffee cups. The holes should be sized so
that the bottom of the cups extend no more than a quarter inch below the
insulation and into the water. Create 2-inch holes for bathroom cups and
2 1/2-inch holes for coffee cups. The holes should be 6 inches from the
sides and a foot apart, forming 32 holes for planting.

7. Add fertilizer. Tyson recommends a general purpose water soluble
fertilizer with micronutrients. He mixes 2 teaspoons of the fertilizer
and one teaspoon of Epsom salts for each gallon of water in the trough.

8. Cut slits in the cups so that air can get to the roots of the plants.

9. Place perlite in the cups. This product, a lightweight filler, soaks
up water like a sponge.

10. Transplant starter plants into the perlite.

“Having the cups only a quarter inch in the water is very important,”
Tyson said. “It’s also crucial that you have the slits along the sides
of the cups for air to enter because roots will die if they get too much
water,” Tyson said.

As your hydroponic garden grows, add more water to compensate for
evaporation. Also add fertilizer at half the original rate as growth
slows or the foliage becomes lighter green.

Tyson believes that truck farmers could implement his system as a
low-cost alternative to the more complex hydroponic systems that are
used for Florida’s expanding hydroponics gardening industry.

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=802

Garden Food Pond

You can easily create a food supply in your back yard, even in the city. First, dig as large a pond as you think you can have in your location. For a smaller pond, use a plastic liner, and for a larger one, go to a supplier and ask for damaged bags of concrete at a discount. If the cement bags have gotten damp have started to harden up, you can get them for next to nothing. Throw them in the pond you dug, and break up the bags & clumps with a hoe. Spread aggregate over the concrete, spray it a little with a hose, and mix it right in with the dirt, making dirt-mix concrete, and smooth it out and let it dry.

Fill the pond, and add water plants in pots, especially edible ones like cattails. Pot them in plastic nursery pots with soilless mix, and cover the top with heavy gravel to keep the soil in the pot, then just place them in the pond. Some large smooth rocks, piled up together to make islands will be good places for small fry to hide and the frogs to sun themselves. Put in a decorative waterfall or fountain to aereate the water.

Stock the pond with catfish. They’re tasty, they grow fast, and they’re darn near impossible to kill. Add water snails and crawdads to help keep the water clean. Also, get bullfrogs for frog legs. Fence in the pond with chicken wire and get ducks and/or geese, if zoning allows it. Keep in mind geese are very noisy, which is bad in a city backyard, but good in a rural area. Geese can take on many predators themselves, and will sound the alarm better than a dog if intruders approach. Also, duck or geese cr*p will permanently seal the bottom of the pond.

Now, for the real heart of the system. You have to run power out to the pond anyways for the water feature pump (make sure it’s a ground fault interruper-protected {GFI} circuit). Get a couple heavy-duty bug zappers and remove the water pan that catches the bugs on the bottom. Hang the zappers out over the water on poles. Tie a scrap of bacon dangling just underneath the zapper with dental floss to draw flies during the day. This is your feeder system. Every time a bug gets zapped, it drops into the water, and the ducks, frogs or catfish will get it. You will never buy food for these animals or fish, it’s free. Also, your bug problems will be greatly diminished. If you place the pond near your veggie garden, many of the bad bugs will be drawn to the pond, to become food instead of eating yours. If you arrainge it artistically, you can even make a nice piece of frontyard landscaping out of the project. Just make sure your fence is good enough to keep out neghborhood dogs.

A couple tips. First, when the ducks begin nesting, run a net through the pond and harvest all the catfish. Call your buddies and tell them to bring beer and their fillet knives over, and have a catfish fry. Save some of your catfish in a seperate container (a barrel or horse trough will work fine) for breeding stock. Large catfish will eat young ducklings, and thus must be harvested before the ducklings hatch. Second, muck out your pond once a year with buckets and plastic scoops, being very careful not to damage the pond liner. This must be done, or the pond will eventually fill in. This muck is rich liquid compost, black gold for your vegetable garden.

So once you set this up, you will get protein from fish, duck and/or geese, eggs, down, feathers, frog legs, crawdads, edible water plants and compost for your garden, as well as insect pest control, and maybe even an extra intruder alarm. The maintenece is very low, the costs are only the tiny amount of electricity to run the pump & zappers, and you have an attractive water feature that will raise the value of your property.

Is that cool, or what ?!?

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=806

Vertical Aquaponics

DIRECTIONS FOR VERTICAL AQUAPONICS

Each system will vary as to which works best and its best for you to experiment for yourself. This whole thing is at the experimental stage. We are the pioneers in the field. If we can create good models we may be effective in helping many individuals and communities to feed themselves excellent organic vegetables and fish, increase their autonomy, and self-sustainability, and lay the groundwork for a future world that is decentralized, democratic, autonomous, non-sovereign, and mutually cooperative.

In the meantime, make the greenhouse and the water containment for the eco-system (fish, local water plants, and any other creatures that might live there, i.e. turtles, frogs, clams, crayfish).

For a large, substantial greenhouse, you might use large old windows from a used building supples source and build a frame for them to attach to.

The water containment for the fish can be a box lined with 2 layers of 6ml plastic or pond liner(pond liner is much more substantial), or a hole (depending on the size, the hole should be at least about 2feet deep) lined with pondliner, or whatever, but it should fit under the greenhouse.

Now, the unique aspects of this aquaponics is the use of 2 liter plastic pop bottles for plant holders and their alignment in columns hanging from the top of the greenhouse support poles to just above the water.

So while the seedlings are growing or you can plant seeds directly into the growing medium (sphagnum, shredded bark) you will need to find a source for 2 liter plastic pop bottles In my 22 foot long aquaponics, there is 30 bottles in a row, each with about 7 bottles in a column hanging over the water. There are 4 rows, so that’s 840 bottles. In the small 3 x3 x7 foot high version there are 4 rows with 5 bottles in each and 5 hanging down, a total of 100 bottles. Green ones are just fine. The 2 liter plastic pop bottle is the best holder we have found for its strength, size, and light weight, perhaps you can find something better.

Towards the bottom (about 2 inches from the end) of each bottle is an indentation that goes all around the bottle, cut on that line. Take the end piece, it has five indentations at the end, drill a hole about 1/4 inch in diameter in each indentation.

Now stuff the whole end piece back into the bottle upside down as far towards the front of the bottle as you can. On some, I placed a piece of screen, then a handful of clay balls or stones to facilitate water passage, and above that fill the bottle with shredded bark for the roots to grow in. Either the seedling or just the seeds can then be placed in the growing medium (at least 4 or more).

We leave the paper on the outside to block the sun, to help prevent algae growth in the bottle.

You need to buy a small, submersible pump (approx. $60), timer ($80), 1/2 inch tubing (in the large version, needed just about 100 , in the small, about 20 , at the hardware, garden supply, or pet store. The small version needs only one pump, the larger version has 2 pumps, each for 2 rows of 30 columns each. The tubing goes to the center of the two rows and is divided by T’s so that the water will pump evenly to each half. A T in the middle and another T on each side ( a total of 3 T’s for each set of 2 rows).

We fastened the tubing to the 2×4’s at the top of the greenhouse with wire, and closed off the end by bending it over and holding with wire.

The bottles are then hung in place, pretty close together, but not too close, also using a wire that circles the 2×4 over head, an s hook and thru the wire going thru the 2 holes drilled about an inch below the edge where the end was cut off. We drilled 2 holes thru the neck of the bottle to pass a wire thru there, and hang another s hook to attach the next bottle, and so on.

The way it works:
The water plants (duckweed, azolla, water hyacinth, local plants that float on ponds and streams, weeds) that you place on the water both clean the water and feed the fish. The water is pumped up the tubing which is attached overhead to the greenhouse. You poke holes into the tubing and place a plastic doohickey into the hole so that the water will squirt down into the 2 liter plastic pop bottles arranged in columns under each plastic doohickey. The doohickeys ($.25) and hole puncher ($1) can be bought at the garden store or hydroponic store along with the 1/2 inch tubing and maybe the pump and timer too.

The fishpoo in the water supplies the plants with nutrients. The bacteria in the roots of the plants cleans the water, the action of the water falling down thru the bottles aerates the water. The whole thing is synergistic like permaculture. Once its set up, monitoring and harvesting is all that is necessary.

A few more tips:
1. I used a milk crate, covered each side with screen, attached it with thin wire, and wired the pump to the top of it and placed it under the water. This protected the pump from getting gummed up with whatevers in the water.

2. Algae gunks up everything. It grows where there is still water and sunlight. To prevent the algae from growing in the water containment area, I have found that hay in a mesh bag, floating in the water, somehow stops the algae. Also, if you set the timer to about one minute for every 10 hours, the roots in the bottles should be damp, but not saturated, and never fully dry. If there is not too much water in there, algae may not form. In the water containment area, it may be necessary to have a pump moving the water because algae can form down there as well, depending on the size, but not necessarily, a biofilter to help keep the ammonium and nitrite levels down, air being pumped into the water may be necessary for the fish’s sake, The small version doesn’t need all of this.

3. Timing and intuition are important. Once you are ready to place your columns of 2 liter plastic bottles with the seedlings, you are ready to add the fish. How many, what size, and what kind you may wonder. The amount depends on the amount of space the water containment is and the size of the fish. Start off with a few, carp and catfish perhaps, they are hardy, tasty fish. Tilapia are very popular elsewhere, they need at least 60 degree water to survive. If its a real small containment area, goldfish will do, you don’t have to eat them. They need to mainly supply the nutrient for the plants.

4. All vegetables and herbs should be growable, some work better than others. Small root vegetables can be grown. You can figure ways to support vegetables that have weight like tomatoes, cabbages, etc. using mesh bags, wire, whatever.

5. Depending on how big a system you create, you may eventually want to spawn your own fish. There are aquaponics list-serves on the net where people will be happy to discuss in detail further questions. Aquaponics or aquaculture has been growing at a rate of about 15% for the last 30 years. It is used commercially throughout the world. China does it the most.

6. I have probably left off somethings you would like to know, please feel free to ask me whatever you like. I hope to have detailed photos very soon on the website, to make it clearer.

7. In temperate zones, like Israel, you may need to shade the greenhouses or whitewash the glass, and/or provide for adaquate ventilation (thermosiphon, fans).

8. The biofilter needs about 2 months to kick in. Let the plants get going a little so that bacteria may start on the roots. Enter the fish gradually, a few at a time, to avoid massive fish death. Check ph, ammonium, and nitrite levels. If you can it would be good to analyze for mineral content in the water, to see what your plants are getting or not getting.

9. Adding other creatures, turtles, frogs, crayfish, etc. add to the diversity of the ecosystem that the water containment area is and thereby gives it more strength.

Most Organically,
Tom
www.bagelhole.org

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=810

Simplified Hydroponics in Urban Agriculture

by Peggy Bradley

Peggy@carbon.org
Bradley Hydroponics
111 NW 26th Suite 1
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
www.hydrogarden.com

See Carbon Quest International for other hydroponics projects in developing countries.

Peggy Bradley and Cesar Marulanda have just published Home Hydroponic Gardens.

Peggy Bradley is published most recently in GrowingEdge, The Hydroponics Magazine - Notes and Information for Indoor and Outdoor growers, Jan/Feb/2000 issue: Introducing Popular Hydroponic Gardens in Senegal

“A U.N. consultant brings hydroponics back-yard systems, developed in Latin America, to home gardens near Dakar.”
Peggy is also the author of Growing Hydroponic Food “Instructions for building hydroponic systems and growing food hydroponically.” Corvallis, Oregon 1999

Simplified Hydroponics

Simplified hydroponics is a vegetable production method that utilizes modern day hydroponic technology adapted for areas with limited resources. This technology is based on minimal inputs, requiring no pumps, energy, or expensive equipment. The gardens are built with recycled or discarded containers, hand watered once a day with a commercial hydroponic nutrient. Recipes also exist for making an organic nutrient at home. The technology is explained in a new book by Peggy Bradley and Cesar Marulanda , “Home Hydroponic Gardens”.

Jerusalen, Bogota, Colombia

In 1985, a hydroponic project supported by the United Nations Development Project (UNDP) was established in Jerusalen, a community on the outskirts of Bogota, Columbia. Designed by Colombian mechanical engineer, Jorge Zapp, the project used hydroponic growers, made of small containers and discarded wood pallets, placed on rooftops, balconies, stairs, and any available space in the sun.

Participants in the project included 130 urban poor families, with 90% of the participants mothers and homemakers. The women earned as much as three times more than their husbands earned in semi-skilled jobs, and provided food from the families from overripe or less than perfect crops. They produced 30 types of vegetables in their hydroponic gardens.

The gardens were built of donated or recycled materials including rice bran from a mill, wooden crates from an auto parts shop and recycled polyethylene from commercial flower growers. The costs of setting up each square meter plot was less than $5.00.

Pallets were set flat on the roof and the top slats were removed. Plastic sheeting was placed inside and the rice bran was used as media. Hydroponic nutrients were supplied by the funding agency at a cost of about $9.00 per year, or about 2.4 cents a day.

Families sold surplus produce to a supermarket cooperative under a contract established by the funding agency. Once week produce was brought in, weighed, and pay was given in cash.

The Jerusalen Project used local materials inexpensive to construct and built of recycled materials. The growing media used was rice bran producing very low weight per growing area. The gardens also obtained excellent production with minimal inputs and no routine analysis of the hydroponic system.

The Jerusalen project serves as highly successful hydroponic garden for developing countries. It shows that hydroponics can be a viable solution to extreme poverty. The fact that the project appeared to fail when nutrient and sales organization was withdrawn does not make the project a failure. One only has to speculate what would happen to existing US agriculture if all funding, subsidy and marketing support were withdrawn, suddenly, with very little warning.

Cesar Marulanda, the United Nations Director who supervised the hydroponics projects explains, “The problems that there are with popular hydroponics in Colombia and in the other 15 countries where we have initiated under my direction, are not of agricultural or technical nature.

“It is that the attitude of the people who accept themselves as beneficiaries. The process should be a matter of business, with business principles taught, so the recipients see the project as a productive company rather than a donation. It is very important to give precise information on the fundamental objectives of a hydroponics company.

“In the technical part the most frequent problem is the distribution of the inorganic nutrient so that all the beneficiaries can buy it in all the places. Presently these nutrients are not sold by the traditional retailers. Also there must be constant technical consultant’s office in the first phases of the project.”

“Even though hydroponic culture is easy to learn, the people are often timid to make decisions and need support when the first problems appear to them that are of easy solution.”

La Molina, Lima, Peru

A hydroponics project for high school students had been developed by Biologist Alfredo Rodr?quez Delf?n, a professor at Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina in Peru.

Each school builds a hydroponic garden, built of wood pallets, boards, black plastic and garden hose. The garden occupies 10 to 12 square meters of surface space and costs about $100.00 to build. The costs per grower are about $10.00 and built of recycled or discarded materials.
The La Molina garden utilizes discarded wooden pallets as a base for the garden containers. The pallets come in either 1m2 or 1 by 1.5m2. The 1m2 pallet is about 15 cm deep and costs about $2.50.

A deeper grower is used for root crops. Alfredo points out that the shallow 15cm grower can be used for root crops, “but you get small roots.” Root grower use rectangular 1 by 1.5m2 pallets, with 30cm wide top boards. Alfredo has found that a 30cm deep trough is sufficient for adequate sized root crops.

Once constructed the growers are filled with a growing media. The growing media used in the Lima area is sand gathered from a waterway or collected from sandy soils. In areas outside Lima, rice hulls are also used. Both sand and pebbles can be used through several rotations of crops without being replaced.

After the seeds have been planted, growers are watered every day except Sunday. A two-liter plastic pop bottle with holes punctured in the bottom is used to sprinkle nutrient water over the grower. During the summer, six or eight bottles of water (6-8 liters) are usually required, and in the winter, one or two bottles (2-4 liters).

Alfredo disagrees with the idea that expensive testing and monitoring equipment is required for little hydroponic gardens. “We do not teach the students or community members about pH. They have no equipment to check pH or electroconductivity of the nutrient solution. The teachers understand pH, but it is not a part of the hydroponics instruction for the garden owner.”

Alfredo sees real promise for home hydroponic gardens in Peru. “We hope to continue our work to improve the lives of the people. We also wish to continue commercial projects and social projects. Our small home hydroponic gardens help people produce their own vegetables or to produce vegetables for sale to improve their incomes.”

St. Werburg’s, Mutare, Zimbabwe

St. Werburg’s Elementary School

A hydroponic curriculum has been established at an elementary school in a rural African village. The village has no running water or electricity. The project was funded by Carbon Quest, a US non-profit organization and Japan’s Council of Governments. Established as an educational project for the community, teachers and students at St. Werburg’s school, the project has become a model for villages in the surrounding area.

In the fall of 1996, Teachers’ Kits manufactured by Bradley Hydroponics were donated to third and fourth grade teachers of St. Werburg’s Elementary school. The teachers attended a training workshop, learned about hydroponics, and then completed the experiments in the teachers kit curriculum.

The teachers kit is shipped in a plastic tub, which serves as a small hydroponic grower. The tub has a hole cut in the side, about 1.5 inches from the bottom, and a drainpipe is placed in the hole to allow overflow water to be collected in a container below. The tub is filled with propagation grade perlite.

Teacher’s Kit introduces basic hydroponic principles

Teachers Kit
Class Online

The teachers kit includes both organic and inorganic nutrients. The inorganic nutrients include a Grow nutrient, Calcium Nitrate and Magnesium Sulfate. The kit normally includes an organic nutrient and seeds, but these cannot be shipped internationally, so an organic nutrient preparation in part of the teachers instruction in the daylong workshop. This includes the building of a worm farm, for worm castings are used as an organic nutrient.

The first experiment grows beans in a tub grower filled with perlite using inorganic nutrient water, and a bean plant grown in soil in the ground. The soil-based beans usually grow much slower than the hydroponic plants and use much more water, sometimes 20 times as much. For a people that often have to carry water for long distances, this is a real revelation.

In the next experiments, the students change one part of the system at a time. After testing four types of growing media, the students are encouraged to try other things. They can ask for help from anyone in the community. With from 90 or more students using a variety of media, usually a few media are discovered that are optimal and locally available. The next experiments test different types of containers and inorganic nutrients.

By having early success with an optimal hydroponic system, the students use a scientific approach of doing experiments changing only one thing at a time. With so many students trying different things, usually suitable materials are found. At the completion of the curriculum, a technology should be established that is built of local materials.

The success of the St. Werburg’s project is probably dependent upon utilizing organic nutrients. The average wage of the agricultural worker in St. Werburg’s ranges from $10.00 to $20.00 per month. Also, fertilizers, when available, are very expensive. Wages barely cover the cost of corn meal with little extra money to buy an inorganic hydroponic nutrient.

“Because of the experiences in Jerusalen, we knew that inorganic nutrients would not be possible to sustain home hydroponic gardens. Therefore, we only use inorganic nutrients as a starting point, to convince the third grade children that hydroponics works. Then we change to organic.”

Although each garden design evolved independently, there are many similarities. All three gardens are hand watered, and do not require water pressure or mechanical devices. Each garden is built of inexpensive materials, and can be constructed in a matter of hours.

Both gardens are managed in similar ways, hand pouring nutrient water in the morning every day (with a weekend break), mixing fresh nutrient water every day, and recycling all excess nutrient. The vegetables used in the garden are similar, and both gardens are used for vegetable crops, rather than grains or fats.

References and addresses

Cesar Marulanda
C/o Carbon Quest
111 Nw 26th Ave
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
Alfredo Rodriquez Delfin
Dir of Centro de Investigaecion de Hirdoponica y nitrition mineral (CIHNM)
Universidad La Moline
Lima Peru
delfin@lamolina.edu.pe

Peggy Bradley
Peggy@carbon.org
Bradley Hydroponics
111 NW 26th Suite 1
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
www.hydrogarden.com

Published by City Farmer
Canada’s Office of Urban Agriculture
cityfarm@interchange.ubc.ca

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=818

Tips For Aquaponics

By Myles Harston
As Seen in Aquaponics Journal April/May 1998
Aquaculture, the culturing of fish and aquatic plants, is currently the fastest growing segment of the agricultural industry. Indoor aquaculture has become increasingly popular for many reasons. Some of those include:

1. It allows farmers to raise fish closer to the marketplace reducing transportation costs.
2. Aquaculture enables farmers to fill niche markets with specialty items.
3. Fish farming helps to fill the need for products that are free of pollutants and are an effective solution to over-fishing. (See National Geographic November 1995).

In all recirculating aquaculture systems there are five basic components:

1. The culture tank where the aquatic animals are kept.
2. Temperature regulation.
3. Dissolved oxygen supplementation.
4. Fecal/particle filtration.
5. Bio-filtration where the ammonia produced by the fish is broken down, with the help of useful aerobic bacteria, into nitrites and then nitrates.

Although there are many variations of these five components, the elimination of any one of these would be impractical.

Prior to beginning your aquaculture enterprise you should check with your state agriculture agencies to find out what permits are required. Some states are more restrictive than others, particularly with regard to certain non-native species.

Water Quality

For your operation you should consider not only the amount of water you have available but the quality of the water itself. The water should be free from chemicals that are harmful to the species you plan to raise. I have found naturally existing amounts of ammonia in some areas high enough to kill almost any kind of aquatic life.

Waste water management and the disposal is a very important consideration. Since waste water from aquaculture is ideally suited for feeding a wide variety of leafy plants, aquaponics is an excellent option for getting rid of it. If it is not used in aquaponics you will need to have some other means of disposal.

You should also reasearch the tolerances of your selected species as to the critical water quality parameters. These upper limits are often debated and may vary depending on your water and the management of your system, but should serve as a guide when starting out.

The most common water quality parameters which should be monitored are: dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrites, pH, hardness, alkalinity, and carbon dioxide.

Feed

Fish feed is one of the most important considerations because feed costs will be about 1/3 of your total operating expenses. There are many different types of commercial feeds available.

Floating pellets of various sizes are usually preferred for juvenile and adult fish. When you have new born fry, they will thrive on brine shrimp and ground up commercial food prepared in gelatin.

Food should be stored in a cool, dry place for no more than 3 months in advance of using, because crucial vitamins (especially vitamin C) are lost with age. Refrigeration or freezing can extend the shelf life of the feed.

Optimum feeding rates should be about 3% of the fishes body weight per day (fry may exceed this ratio). You should catch random specimens periodically to help calculate the percentage of feed to be fed daily.

Care should be taken not to over feed more than the fish can consume at ony one time. Excessive feeding will quickly foul the water and can cause unbalances in your bio-filter’s stability.

Bio-Filtration

Bio-filters utilize two kinds of beneficial bacteria: Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. The bacteria are living organisms which utilize oxygen and consume food, ammonia, and nitrites. Ammonia production is proportional to the feeding rate, therefore, the capacity of a bio-filter should be sized-based on the maximum weight of the fish and the highest rate you will fee.

In your initial setup of the bio-filter, it is wise to use a commercially available bacteria seed culture. When we begin to seed our system, we trickle in the recommended amount over several days rather than all at once. We continue to trickle small amounts into the water until the ammonia and the nitrites come down to acceptable levels. Let your test kits be your guide.

As the poundage of fish in your tank increases and the bio-filter becomes more efficient, the pH will start to drop. This is caused by the bacteria producing acid and is normal.

When we are just raising fish we try to maintain our culture water at a pH of about 7.4. To raise the pH we simply use sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), which can be found in a local feed store in 50 pound bags for about $15.00.

If you need to lower your pH, sulfuric acid can be used. You should monitor your pH regularly. When adjustments need to be made, do it in small increments so as not to shock the fish.

When we combine fish culture with growing plants (aquaponics), we must compromise with the needs of both the plants and the fish and maintain a pH of about 6.8. To raise the pH when doing Aquaponics, unless it is an emergency don’t add sodium bicarbonate to the water, it will harm the plants. You can use either potasium carbonate or calcium carbonate.

We have found that when we allow the pH to drop much lower than 6.7 denitrification is less efficient.

Summary

If you are just now looking to get your feet wet in aquaculture, it’s always a good idea to start with a smaller system (under 2,000 gallons) so you can learn how to monitor and control your water parameters.

I recommend investing in quality test kits and using them regularly. Happy Fishing!

AquaRanch Industries, LLC
PO Box 40 - 320 West Gridley Rd, Gridley, IL?? 61744
phone (309)747-2152, fax (309)747-2243
email myles@ringgerfoods.com
www.aquaranch.com
copyright 2000 - all rights reserved
(permission given to bagelhole)

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=822

Natural Pest Control

Here are some of the kitchen-cabinet remedies we’ve tested over the years and found just as good as many chemicals and sold in garden centers.

FRUIT COCKTAIL.You can buy Japanese-beetle traps of all sorts, but most are no more effective in trapping these pests than a can of fruit cocktail. Open the can and let it sit in the sun
for about a week to ferment. Then stand it on bricks or wood blocks in a
light-colored pail. Fill the pail with water to just below the top of the can and
put it about 25 feet from the plants you want to protect. The beetles,attracted
to the sweet and potent bail, will fall into the water and drown. (If rain
dilutes the fruit cocktail, you’ll have to start anew.)

BUTTERMILK -The scrourge of many outdoor ornamental plants, and indoor ones, too, is the mite, so tiny it would take 50 of them to cover the head of a pin. The most common one, the red
spider mite, causes yellowing and stippling of foliage and twisting of leaf tips.

There is a simple home cure that works on the ornamental plants and fruit trees. Mix 1/2 cup o buttermilk, 4 cups of wheat flour and 5 gallons of water and strain through cheesecloth. Sprayed a plant, the mixture destroys a high-percentage of mites as well as their eggs.

EPSOM SALTS AND BORAX -If you raise muskmelons that taste flat, the trouble could be a lack of magnesium in sandy soil. University of Maryland tests show that muskmellons can be sweetened
by spraying the vines with a solution of borax, Epsom salts and water. Use 3-1/3 tablespoons of household borax, plus 6-1/2 tablespoons of Epsom salts, in 5 gallons of water. Spray foliage when the vines begin to “run” and again when fruits are about two inches in diameter.

SOAP, DETERGENT, TOBACCO. -Soap effectively controls fungus gnats, tiny black flies that may thrive in the soil of your house plants. Make suds of laundry soap, and pour 1/2 cup to 1 cup
around the top of the pots. Any bar laundry soap will work, but naphtha soap works best. (my note, good old Fels Naphtha again to the rescue!) Soapsuds also make a fine killer of soft-bodies pests such as aphids. And nothing beats liquid dishwashing detergent for getting rid of whiteflies, one of the worst pests gardeners have to contend with. Also called “flying dandruff,” these snow-white insects, each about 1/16 inch long, congregate on the underside of leaves and suck
sap. They also secrete a sticky substance that attracts a black mold and kills foliage.

Mix 1 teaspoon of liquid dishwashing detergent in a gallon of water and spray the undersides of leaves every five days for 15 days. Repeat once a week thereafter, until the insects are eradicated. If you’re a smoker or use tobacco in any form, be sure to wash your hands with laundry soap before handling plants.

TOMATOES, PEPPERS,EGGPLANTS, petunias and other members of the Solanaceae family. The soap deactivates tobacco-mosaic virus which may be present on your hands and helps prevent it from spreading to plants. A plant that already has this virus must be removed and destroyed immediately.

On the other hand, for garden plants and house plants (except those ofthe Solanaceeae family), you can’t find a better aphid killer than nicotine. Soak two or three cigarette butts in a cup of water to get a brown “tea”.

Mix in a little soapsuds and dip infected parts of house plants in the solution or use it as a spray. Tobacco juice also is highly effective in killing such pests in the soil of house plants as symphilids, fungus gnats and springtails. Pour a cupful around the base of the plant. (Caution: nicotine is toxic: keep the mixture our of the reach of children and pets.)

BLEACH
-To protect ripening tomatoes from fungal diseases, wash them with a solution of 1 tablespoon of bleach to a quart of water, and dry with a paper towel. Wrap each tomato in newspaper, and store in a basket or tray in a cool place (any area with a temperature around 55 degrees).

To sterilize your garden tools and old clay or plastic flowerpots, scrub them with a brush. Then soak them for a few minutes in a solution of one part bleach to nine parts water.

TALCUM POWDER -It you’re plagued by rabbits, try dusting your plants with ordinary talcum powder. It also works like a charm in repelling flea beetles on tomatoes, potatoes, peppers and other plants.

GARLIC -If you’re looking for ammunition to keep cats and dogs away, chop up abulb of garlic or a large onion, add a tablespoon of cayenne pepper, and steep in a quart of water for an hour. Add 1 teaspoon of liquid dishwashing detergent to help the mixture stick to the plant. Strain what you need into a sprayer or watering can and sprinkle it on plant leaves. The rest will remain potent for several weeks if refrigerated in a tightly covered jar. (Do not spray outdoors on
windy days as solution may burn you reyes. Indoors, be careful not to breathe the
fumes.)

VINEGAR -Azaleas and gardenias need an acid soil. If you live in a
hard-water area, your plants may suffer from too much lime, causing leaves to
turn yellow.

Add 2 tablespoons of vinegar to a quart of water and pour a cupful or
so around the base of a plant every two or three weeks until the yellow
disappears.

Vinegar is also useful in making a preservative for cut flowers.

Mix 2 tablespoons of white vinegar and 2 teaspoons of cane sugar in a quart of water.
Use in vase instead of plain water.

BEER -Placed in shallow pans flush with the ground, beer is a safe, inexpensive killer of snails and slugs. The pests crawl into the pans and drown. In a report to the Entomological Society of America a few years ago, Floyd F. Smith of the U.S. Dept. ofAgriculture said that in a series
of four-day greenhouse tests, beer attracted more than 300 slugs, while metaldhyde, a standard bait,attracted only 28!!!!!!Very likely at this date in time, there may be other stuff on the market that “updates”all this, but I for one, am surely going to get a LARGE can of talcum powder for my tomatoes!!!!!

Everyone stay safe,

Dar in Tucson

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=653

Country Lore: Foil Slugs with Eggshells

By Anita Baxley

I’ve been gardening organically for many years in our Zone 6b region. I note that people are always asking and writing about getting rid of slugs. The general response is beer, copper, diatomaceous earth, bait and traps.

I’ve been practicing a method with eggshells and have found it to be 100 percent effective. My chickens provide me with the best eggs ever and after using the eggs, I rinse out the shells, let them dry and store them in a coffee can. After the can is full, I put them in an old food processor and grind them up. I sprinkle them around my flowers, veggies, etc. Slugs will not crawl across them. Also, the eggshells provide the mineral benefit of calcium for my garden!

I realize that some people compost or crush eggshells by hand, but with the food processor, they’re quite manageable and don’t nick and cut your hands. Also, it makes it easier to distribute the shells around plants.

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=794

clever ways to grow

Let all be fine and well,

The sun and moon shine brightly on us all, let them be our guides for unity! This is site

is dedicated to improving the environment by showing you how to use sustainable techniques

such as reusing (recylcing) empty bottles and converting them into containers to be used

for plant nurseries.

- These designs can be used for home, garden, school, community centers, or farm.

- This type of nursery is designed to use the earth’s natural energies for promoting plant

growth.

-made from 100% reused materials

- Nearly maintenance free

- Easy enough for a child to use

- Fast and efficient

- does not require much water (you can use “grey water”

Please contact dannybowers@gmail.com for more information..

Aquaponic terrariums

This type of gardening system employs both water and soil, and uses the process of

vaporization to keep the plants hydrated. Each plant is grown individually in its own

terrarium. Using a reused (recylced) soda bottles and plastic totes the system can grow

lettuce or produce clones in a week to two weeks.

How to build a system:

the materials are:

soda bottles (cut to become terrariums)

1 10 gallon plastic tote

rocks a little larger than the soda bottle hole

coconut fiber (called coco coir)

the procedure:

cut holes into the top of the plastic tote with a 1 drill bit. then
insert the plastic bottles. next, cut the bottles in half and slice
two quarter inch slits into the top one on each side(so that its

easier to put the two halves back together). now put the top of the tote back onto

the plastic tote and add water to the bottles (the extra water will

drain into the tote), fill until there is a gallon of water in the

tote. then add coconut fiber and place a cutting into each bottle. put

the top of the bottles back on making terrariums. its that easy!

cut in half, fill the top half with soil (sand,coco,compost,minerals) and insert a wick

(nylon or hemp) into the spout. Now insert the top into the bottom (spout side down), the

wick should touch the base. Next pour water on the soil, it should seep through to the

bottom. The water will be sucked up and evaporate every few days, refill.

How to start a garden.

Starting seeds

* seeds like clean environments. use castile soap to prepare materials.

* place seeds on a moist cheese cloth, on a plate.
* add water, and change water everyday.

* cover with another cheese cloth, and an upside plate on top, give room for air.

* soon you’ll see life and roots growing.

* plant the embrios when mature and healthy.

* don’t forget to water and transplant into a bigger pot, you’re a parent!

Maintaining your garden

1. collect organic seeds (from friends, garden, organic, non gmo produce from stores)

2. start a seed library. people can check seeds out and back in from seeds they collect at

harvest.

3. prepare the soil by stirring the ground (add humus, peat moss, vermiculite, perlite,

worms, sand, minerals, and other nutrients.

4. plant seeds according to zone season,sun. make sure seeds are properly cared for.

5. plant flowers in the first quarter of the new moon.

6. know your zones.

7. know many varieties and uses for plants

8. use weeds.

9. seeds like to hibernate in clean, cool dark places.

10. safe space for storing seeds (sterility, clean and healthy, no chemicals)

11. use castile soaps to clean spaces and for pest deterent.

12. use chili, garlic, and mint for pest deterent (mix a few grains with water, and spray)

13. become familiar with plant families.

14. remember that the ground is a living organism, a hole is a womb.

15. check your soil for toxins.

16. learn many ways to make the most life.

17. plants need nutrition, good soil, light, dark, love, and water.

18. use companion planting, plants with lots of friends attract more flying friendlies to

pollinate.

19. when you sow seeds yourself you know what they look like as they grow. this way

tendying to them is easier.

20. don’t pull any plant that you don’t know the name and use for.

21. weeds feed insects and pests. if there are no weeds, they’ll eat your garden.

22. arrange your seedlings according to type and how much space you’ll need.
23. if you grow vertically with fanciful hills and trellisses you’ll get a better yield.

Container Gardening

To grow healthy container plants, you need to do a little research about your plants. For

example, how far apart should they be? How tall will they grow? This is particularly

important if you are planting a window box with a variety of plants. For example, if

sunflowers need constant sun, don’t plant them with a flower that cannot endure full sun.

companion planting is helpful for maximum potential. In container gardening, you also need

to ensure that plants have effective drainage and good soil. Place small rocks at the

bottom of your containers so water will drain, and dampen potting soil before placing it

in the pot.

Harvesting the garden

Take plants and seeds for harvest just before or at their peak (some seeds can be

harvested long after their peak when they are dry. e.g. corn, amaranth, onion, garlic,

greens). Prepare an area for drying by cleaning it with castile soap and allowing to

completely dry. Like young seedlings harvests should be done in a clean environment. If

you are collecting tomatoes remember they ripen quickest in darness rather than light.

potatoes, pumpkins and squash can be stored in a cool, clean basement.You can save your

vegetable seeds by drying them (you can use a plate, or the top of a plastic container,

piece of wood, metal, etc.) . If You are hanging plants don’t forget to make sure there is

good airflow, or there will be mold.

How to start a seed library

- first collect enough seeds to share.

- dry and store seeds.

A good seed library starts with good gardeners. Before you start handing out seeds you

should provide courses in gardening (and free seeds) to individuals interested in seed

sharing. Next, each individual checks out an appropriate number of seeds for their garden,

after harvesting participants can check-in seeds from their harvest. These individuals

might also be willing to help teach the next generation of seed library gardeners.

How to pick and prepare produce for sale and presentation;

1). Produce must be free from insects.

2). Grocers want produce in small, medium, and large size bunches.

3). Bunches (of each size), must be equal.

4).When removing produce, pick largest first.

5). One does not need to kill plants to pick produce

How is a garden a symbol of the anarchical freedom we are intended to possess?

Everywhere you look things are commodified. many things don’t come free, even if you can

get them that way. Governments, regardless of leaning, still require people to pay money

for food. No one can live without food, therefore, people become dependent upon the

systems created by the government, often to their detriment, in order to get food and

live. In cases where altruistic communities arise it is often those with the biggest

bounty who give away the most freely. why can’t we all live like this? In many communities

resources are fought over, tooth and nail. The people who give the most are often forced,

by an agressor who wishes to sell the product. This is a viscious cycle of life that does

not enable a person to become successful at their highest potential. It requires males and

females to compete, and often forced into harmful situations. Our creators did not intend

for us to live life like this, but they did give us the freedom to choose for ourselves.
A garden is a revolutionary act of defiance and anarchy on one side, and a simple means of

creating your own sustinance on the other. It does not require; an army,genius, schooling

, or a lot of money (for the resourceful, it requires none). It does require

space,time,compost,soil,seeds,water,and love. These may seem like strange items for a

revolution, but like most shifts in consciousness these items can become very important.

Many gardens are popping up in formerly abandoned areas. With too much money spent on war,

the despotic powers don’t have concern yet for quiet gardeners. Somewhere a weed slowly

grows through cement. Many vacant lots are owned by people who don’t even live in your

town, or by banks that use your money to make more money. When you see the pleased faces

of your neighbors, you’ll know gardening is a way to overthrow the government, when people

become collectivized, we notice that the more we meet a community’s needs the less hassle

we get from police. Food not Bombs collectives around the country have experienced a level

of tolerance from police, because their are too many starving in Amercian streets for

churches to handle. The derilect has become the scapegoat of the New World Order, but they

create and maintain homelessness, and poverty. When a garden is created, a pillar of the

empire is crushed. If the world relied on its own ingenuity and once again fed itself, and

shared the wealth we would see the rise of agrarian societies. Even the governments would

crumble as soldiers returned home to forge plowshares from their weapons. there would be

no one to bully another in a world where a hole in the ground is respected as a womb. Why

bomb another, when you can look forward to one of their exotic and tasty crops? Why

endeavor to have a standardized world or nation, when their are so many juicy differences?

why have just apples, when there is so much fruit? with so many benefits. Our bodies were

designed to function best when we have a varied diet of healthy fruits and vegetables.

Myspace.com/dannybowers

http://www.sharingsustainablesolutions.org/?p=796

Shiitake Mushroom Production: Obtaining Spawn, Obtaining and Preparing Logs, and Inoculation F-40

Stephen M. Bratkovich, formerly of Ohio State University Extension.

In nature, the shiitake fungus propagates and spreads from spores produced by the mushroom. However, for cultivation, spore germination is too unreliable. Instead, logs are inoculated with actively growing fungus. The fungus is first adapted to wood by growing it directly on small pieces of wood. Active fungal cultures intended as inoculum for mushroom cultivation are called spawn. Because the quality of the crop can be no better than the spawn, growers must use viable shiitake spawn of a good variety in pure culture, free of weed fungi and bacteria.
Spawn Strain Characteristics

Different cultivars or strains of shiitake may perform differently under different conditions. Initially, growers should try more than one strain to ensure success. Also, growers can extend the growing season by using strains that fruit under different environmental conditions. For example, a grower in southern Ohio could use a cold-weather strain for spring and fall production, and a heat-tolerant strain for summer production.

The following strain characteristics need to be considered when ordering spawn from commercial suppliers:

* Preference for type of wood
* Resistance to weed fungi
* Speed of colonization (time of first fruiting)
* Ease of fruiting
* Season of fruiting
* Ability to stimulate (force) fruiting
* Required temperature for fruiting
* Size, shape, color and flavor of mushrooms
* Mushroom storage characteristics

The individual grower will need to experiment with different strains and decide which work best in a particular situation.
Sources of Spawn

There are numerous spawn suppliers throughout the United States and Canada. In addition to experimenting with different strains, growers are encouraged to purchase spawn from more than one spawn supplier. Many spawn suppliers also sell equipment and supplies related to mushroom growing; product catalogs are often available from them upon request. Fact Sheet F-39 Shiitake Mushroom Production: Introduction and Sources of Information and Supplies, includes an up-to-date list of spawn suppliers. It is available from your county office of Ohio State University Extension.
Forms of Spawn

Shiitake spawn can be purchased on two mediums: sawdust and wood dowels. It is usually supplied in either sealed plastic or glass containers. The spawn should be moist, white (sometimes with a brown crust) and appear rather fuzzy. Good quality spawn smells mushroom-like, not mildewy or mold-like. Weed fungi and bacteria are controlled by not damaging or opening the spawn container until use of the entire contents.
Spawn Storage

Spawn must be kept away from direct sunlight and temperature extremes. Storage for a month or more should be in a cool (34-38 F) location away from direct sunlight. Spawn must not be frozen. Prior to inoculation spawn should be warmed to room temperature (70 F) for two to five days.
Obtaining and Preparing the Logs

Trees cut for shiitake mushroom production should be harvested as part of an overall forest management plan. Individuals interested in producing shiitake mushrooms from their woodlot should contact a forester for assistance in selecting the appropriate trees.
Suitable Tree Species

The hardwood tree family most recommended in the United States for shiitake cultivation is the beech family (Fagaceae). The particular genus most successful in this family is Quercus (oak). All oak trees can be used with the possible exception of live oak. The thicker bark oaks such as white and chestnut oak are often preferred over the thinner bark red, scarlet and pin oak.

Beech, birch, chestnut, chinkapin, alder, maple, cottonwood, willow, aspen, poplar, elm and hophornbeam are suitable species but may have commercial limitations. As a rule, the thin-barked low-density species provide relatively quick mushroom production but only for a short time period. Locust, walnut and all conifers are not suitable for shiitake cultivation.

Sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) have outperformed oak species in selected trials in North Carolina. Other species may prove to be excellent for shiitake cultivation once testing is completed.
Tree Quality

Logs used for shiitake production must be cut from live, healthy trees. Living trees with obvious insect or disease damage should not be used.

Optimum log size is 4-8 inches in diameter and 3-4 feet in length; standard lengths make operations much more convenient. Logs with a thick sapwood layer and small heartwood area are preferred. Logs can be cut from young hardwood trees or branches of older trees.

Logs should be straight for ease in handling but crooked logs can be used. A smooth bark will make the inoculation (seeding) process easier but thin bark tends to crack and peel sooner than thick bark. Regardless of thickness, the bark must be intact on the log.
Tree Felling

Some authors suggest the optimum felling time is when 30 to 80 percent of the tree leaves on the chosen species have changed color. Others suggest tree felling during the coldest time of winter. One reason for the different opinions on tree felling is due to the different theories on the best time to inoculate (seed the logs). Most shiitake growers and researchers agree, however, that trees should be felled sometime during the dormant season (mid-autumn to late winter), before spring sap movement and bud swell.

Logs should not be used for shiitake production if they were cut from felled trees that seasoned during the summer months. For example, trees cut prior to the summer months (even if cut while dormant) should not be used after being exposed to the warm weather conditions of summer.
Log Preparation

After tree felling, logs need to be prepared for inoculation. Regardless of the method of log preparation, two areas need careful attention: the moisture content of the log needs to be maintained above 35 percent and potential log contaminants must be minimized.

One method of reducing moisture loss is to keep logs in whole tree lengths and cut to final log size prior to inoculation. Rain and snowfall can be permitted to wet the logs. If trees must be immediately cut to final log length, logs should be protected from drying winds and direct sunlight by covering with burlap, shade cloth or plastic. If possible, logs should be stacked firewood-style in full shade under conifers. Watering or soaking logs is recommended several days before inoculation if the moisture content drops below 35 percent. Log surfaces should be allowed to dry prior to inoculation.

Log contaminants (insects, diseases, etc.) can be reduced by storing the logs off the ground. Tree length logs can have the butt supported on the stump. Logs cut to length can be placed on pipe, concrete blocks or other suitable material that will keep them off the ground. If stacking logs in contact with the ground, select a well-drained site with good air circulation and use cull logs as supports.

When logs are cut to final length, plan all cuts to give the most good logs. All diseased and wounded sections, forks, crotches and major kinks should be cut out. Small branches should be removed from logs, leaving a stump of approximately two inches. A wire brush can be used to remove lichens and moss from the bark prior to inoculation.
Inoculation

Inoculation is the introduction of the live shiitake fungus into the log. A one-time inoculation will produce mushrooms after 6-18 months and will continue to produce for 3-6 years.

In the past, logs were normally cured after felling for at least two weeks before inoculation. However, many researchers and spawn suppliers are now recommending inoculation as soon as possible after felling. Also, early spring inoculation is now being replaced by fall and spring inoculation. Inoculation should always be done in a shaded area to avoid direct exposure of the spawn to sunlight.

Logs should be watered if the internal log moisture content drops below 35 percent prior to inoculation. Occasional thorough waterings are better than frequent light waterings. The former will increase the internal log moisture content while the latter often just wets the bark surface.
Personnel, Equipment and Supplies Needed

While the entire inoculation process can be done by one person, a minimum of three is suggested: one person to drill holes, one to place the spawn in the holes and one to seal the inoculation sites. A fourth person can be useful in moving logs from one work station to the next.

In addition to the spawn, equipment and supplies needed for inoculation are: drill (preferably high speed if many logs are to be inoculated), bits, work table or saw buck, yard stick or measuring tape, hammer (for dowel spawn), inoculation tool (optional, for sawdust spawn), paraffin/cheese wax/plastic foam (for sealing inoculation sites), heat source (for melting wax), wax dropper or brush (for applying wax), and rubbing alcohol.
Inoculation Procedure

Logs to be drilled should be secured in a saw buck or similar arrangement to prevent the logs from moving (Figure 1). The log bark should be free of dirt and other possible contaminants. Dip the drill bit in rubbing alcohol after finishing each log as a precaution.

The hole-drilling pattern will vary from grower to grower. A general recommendation is to space holes 6-16 inches within rows and 2-4 inches between rows since the shiitake mycelium runs well with the grain but poorly across the grain. Adjacent rows should be offset from one another to create a diamond pattern on the log (Figure 2).

Depth and diameter of the holes will depend on the source as well as the form of spawn. Hole depth generally ranges between 3/4 and 11/4 inches with hole diameter between 1/4 and 1/2 inch. Most spawn suppliers will recommend dimensions for hole size. After a log has been drilled, holes should be filled immediately so as not to lose moisture or permit entry of airborne spores.

Hands should be washed and then wiped with rubbing alcohol before handling spawn. On a work table or second saw buck, dowel spawn can be placed into the holes and then gently pounded in with a hammer. A convenient method is to initially hold the dowels with forceps. Sawdust spawn can either be inserted manually or with an inoculation tool available from many spawn suppliers. Disagreement exists as to whether the sawdust spawn should be packed tightly in the hole or just lightly tamped in. Growers are advised to follow the spawn supplier’s recommendations.

The final step in the inoculation process is to seal the spawn-filled hole with either a paraffin or cheese wax or styrofoam plug. Holes are sealed to prevent loss of moisture, to prevent contamination by undesirable microorganisms and to allow the spawn to grow within the confines of the log. Hot wax also tends to disinfect the inoculation surface. Melted wax can be applied by brush or wax dropper (similar to a turkey baster). Styrofoam plugs are placed on top of the spawn, flush with the surface of the bark.
Suggested Practices After Inoculation

All inoculated logs should be coded to record important information such as spawn strain, tree species, etc. Small aluminum tags fastened to log ends with a staple work well for this purpose. Good record keeping will enable growers to duplicate successful practices by learning from past experiences.

Inoculated logs may be dead piled (firewood style) and shaded with plastic immediately following inoculation. If the log moisture content is low, burlap or similar material should be used to allow rain to reach the logs. If surface molds develop, logs should be moved from temporary to a permanent laying position.
References

Cotter, V. T., et al. (1987). Shiitake farming in Virginia (Pub. 438-012). Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech and Virginia State University, Virginia Cooperative Extension Service.

Haney, A. (1989). Mushrooming forest profits. In Shiitake Mushrooms: Proceedings of a National Symposium and Trade Show (pp. 57-61). St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota, Educational Development System, 405 Coffey Hall.

Harris, B. (1986). Growing shiitake commercially. Madison, WI: Science Tech Publishers.

Kerrigan, R. (1982). Is shiitake farming for you? South San Francisco, CA: Far West Fungi.

Kuo, D., and Kuo, M. (1983). How to grow forest mushroom (shiitake). Naperville, IL: Mushroom Technology Corp.

Leatham, G. F. (1982). Cultivation of shiitake, the Japanese forest mushroom, on logs: A potential industry for the United States. Forest Products Journal, 32(8), 29-35.

Figure 1. Log drilling in a saw buck. Ohio State University Extension

Figure 2. Pattern to guide the placement of holes (inoculation sites) across the log surface.

All educational programs conducted by Ohio State University Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory basis without regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability or Vietnam-era veteran status.

Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.

TDD No. 800-589-8292 (Ohio only) or 614-292-1868

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Raceway Production of Warm-Water Fish

Michael McGee and Charles Cichra

Many who are interested in commercial fish farming strike upon the idea of raising catfish or other warm-water species in raceways. This idea seems appealing because yields per unit of growing area may be theoretically increased and the need for large ponds eliminated or reduced. While the thought process that leads one to this conclusion is sound, there are other factors which make the raceway culture of warm-water fish a rather risky, and as yet an economically unproven venture. Nevertheless, interest in the use of raceways or other similar intensive systems remains high and those who are trying to evaluate the pros and cons often find a scarcity of information on which to base their decisions. There are sometimes unique situations where raceway systems may be practical and profitable. The general operating characteristics of raceways and related intensive systems are described below.

Facilities

Raceways are generally constructed in a ratio of 5 to 1 (or greater) length to width, and with a depth of 3 to 5 feet. Water should flow evenly through the system to eliminate areas of poor water circulation where waste materials or sediment may accumulate. Raceways may be constructed above ground or in the ground from cement or fiberglass, and even wood has been used. Fish culture in raceways requires a large quantity of good quality water, preferably supplied by gravity flow from artesian wells or higher elevations. If pumping is required, operating cost may be high and risks increased due to possible failure of pumps or power supply.

Water Requirements

One should consider raceways only if an abundance of good quality water is available. On the average, 1 to 3 gallons per minute of flow should be available for each cubic foot of raceway volume at densities of 3 pounds of fish per cubic foot. If supplemental aeration is used, the water requirement may be somewhat reduced. Water flow should be sufficient to keep solid waste material from accumulating in the raceway and to dilute liquid waste (primarily ammonia) excreted by fish.

Water Quality

To achieve good production and minimize problems of stress and disease, water quality should be sustained within desirable ranges at all times. Oxygen should be maintained above 60% of saturation. Ammonia levels should remain below 0.1 mg/l in the discharge. Alkalinity, hardness, pH and temperature should remain within the optimum range for the cultured species. Water quality should be monitored frequently, especially oxygen and ammonia, to ensure that conditions remain suitable. This enables the producer to learn more about the production system and its operating characteristics. Water quality test kits, which are available from aquaculture supply catalogs, are suitable for most routine analyses.

Water Management and Recirculation

Traditionally, raceways are considered to be single pass, flow-through systems. Some fish farmers have developed raceways which are joined with ponds, and use the ponds to clean the water prior to reuse. If such a system is designed, the pond(s) should have a volume of at least 7 times the total daily discharge volume of the raceway. This allows sufficient time for water quality improvement. Since pond culture is a successful and traditional way of growing catfish and most warm-water species, it is not practical to build ponds so one can use a raceway system. If existing ponds are available, but not suitable for traditional fish culture due to excessive depth, uneven bottom or debris, a raceway system of this type may be considered.
Recirculating systems are often proposed as a type of closed or semi-closed raceway. The water is reconditioned by clarification, biological filtration, and reaeration so that most of the water is re-used and only a fraction of the total daily flow is made up of new water. The productive capacity of this system is dependent on the ability of the filtration system to remove wastes and on the volume of replacement water used to improve water quality. Fish production in systems of this sort may reach levels similar to that achieved in raceways. Water quality should be monitored frequently in such a system since without high rates of water exchange, toxic metabolites may accumulate rapidly if the biological filtration system is not sufficient to handle the wastes.

Stocking Rates

The quantity of fish which can be grown intensively in a raceway is more dependent on the quantity and quality of the water than on the size of the facility. Small fish consume proportionally more oxygen per unit of body weight than larger fish, and therefore are normally stocked at lower densities. Densities of fish stocked in raceways may range from 1 to 10 pounds per cubic foot of water, depending on the capacity of the system to support the population. In practice, stocking densities can be calculated based on expected harvest weight of fish to be produced, or based on the carrying capacity of the system. With the latter method, the number of fish is reduced as their size increases.

Feeds and Feeding

Fish produced in ponds derive part of their nutrition from natural foods. In raceway culture, fish are dependent on a prepared diet for all of their nutritional needs. Therefore, feeds for intensive fish culture need to be of a better quality and the fish farmer must pay a higher price. Higher protein content and more complete vitamin and mineral supplements are usually the two major improvements in the feeds for intensive fish culture systems. Since raceways are flowing water systems, feeds not directly used by the fish are lost from the system. Growers should strive to ensure that fish are not overfed, and adjust feeding rates accurately to ensure efficient production. Poor feed conversion rates typically indicate improper feeding practices, inadequate diet composition, or adverse environmental conditions. Feeding rings, backwash areas, or temporarily stopping water exchange may be considered if flow rates are such that feed is too quickly flushed from the system.

Constraints and Risks

This discussion has considered general aspects of the design, operation and management of raceways and similar intensive systems. The information presented is not a guide to developing such a system since the engineering and management involved are complicated. Anyone considering such a venture is strongly urged to thoroughly evaluate the economic costs and management requirements of the operation prior to proceeding ( Table 1 ). There are a number of raceway systems that have been tried in the past for warm-water fish without a great deal of success. Some of the reasons why these systems are still considered high risk or economically unfeasible should be emphasized.
It is premature to discard raceways systems as unworkable. The knowledge and skill of aquaculturists is continually increasing as they strive to achieve better and more intensive ways of raising fish. To date, however, the pond system of production has worked better for warm-water species. Little sponsored research is being conducted on raceway culture and at present it remains for the entrepreneur to develop and test their potential. There is no question that fish can be raised intensively in raceways and recirculating systems, but the bottom line remains that in the majority of circumstances, it has not been proven to be competitive with existing production methods.

Tables

Table 1.

Table 1. Constraints and Risks of Raceways.

Constraints

Large water requirement

High costs of construction

High operating costs

Require more expensive feeds

Discharge permit required

Require more management skill

More stress on fish

Vulnerable to catastrophe

Price competition from pond raised fish

Risks

Insufficient water supply

Poor water quality

Mechanical failure

Power failure

Massive fish kill

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Footnotes

1. This document is Fact Sheet FA-4, one of a series of the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. June, 1991. Please visit the FAIRS Web site at http://hammock.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. Michael McGee, former assistant professor, extension aquaculture; Charles Cichra, associate professor, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611.

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The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function without regard to race color, sex, age, handicap, or national origin. For information on obtaining other extension publications, contact your county Cooperative Extension Service office.

Florida Cooperative Extension Service / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences / University of Florida / Christine Taylor Waddill, Dean