Catholic Biblical Apologetics

Apologetics without apology!

What does the Roman Catholic Church teach about ...? ... and why?

This website surveys the origin and development of Roman Catholic Christianity from the period of the apostolic church, through the post-apostolic church and into the conciliar movement. Principal attention is paid to the biblical basis of both doctrine and dogma as well as the role of paradosis (i.e. handing on the truth) in the history of the Church. Particular attention is also paid to the hierarchical founding and succession of leadership throughout the centuries.

This is a set of lecture notes used since 1985 to teach the basis for key doctrines and dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The objectives of the course were, and are:

To present the biblical basis for the origin and development of the Roman Catholic Church.
To present the development of the canon of Scripture and evolution of biblical teaching in the Church.
To understand the role of paradosis/tradition in the oral transmission of revelation.
To study the Council of Jerusalem, described in the 15^th chapter of The Acts of the Apostles and its role in the development of doctrine in the conciliar movement in the Church.
To understand the revelation, doctrinal development and practice of the sacramental life in the history of the Church.
To study the role of the Holy Spirit as teaching authority in the Church.
To study the revelation and development of hierarchical authority in the Church.
To understand the hierarchy of truths in the Church as well as the role of private devotion and personal growth in holiness.

The course grew out of the need for the authors to continually answer questions about their faith tradition and their work. (Both authors are active members of Catholic parish communities in the Diocese of Richmond, Virginia. Dr. Robert Schihl was a Professor and Associate Dean of the School of Communication and the Arts at Regent University. Paul Flanagan is a consultant specializing in preparing people for technology based changes.) At the time these notes were first prepared, the authors were spending time in their faith community answering questions about their Protestant Evangelical workplaces (Mr. Flanagan was then a senior executive at the Christian Broadcasting Network), and time in their workplaces answering similar questions about their Roman Catholic faith community. These notes are the result of more than a decade of facilitating dialogue among those who wish to learn more about what the Roman Catholic Church teaches and why.

General Councils of the Church

Jerusalem (Acts 15:2)

When and where: 49.
Crisis or controversy: Gentile converts must follow Mosaic Law; "Unless you are circumcised according to the Mosaic practice, you cannot be saved." Acts 15:1
Attendees: "Apostles and presbyters" Acts 15:6, and the following notables:
Paul and Barnabas,
Peter, James (Acts 15:6-22)
Decrees and resolutions: "It is the decision of the Holy Spirit and of us not to place on you any burden beyond these necessities." Acts 15:28

Nicea I

When and where: 325. (Now Iznik, Turkey, 70 miles from Constantinople on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus)
Crisis or controversy: Christ was a pure creature; made out of nothing; liable to fall; the Son of God by adoption, not by nature: Arianism.
Attendees: 318 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Constantine I, Emperor;
Eusebius of Caesarea, historian;
St. Athanasius, theologian;
Ratified: Silvester I, Pope.
Decrees and resolutions: The Nicene Creed;
The Consubstaniality of the Word: homousion with the Father;
Solved how the date of Easter should be calculated.

Constantinople I

When and where: 381. (Now Istanbul, Turkey)
Crisis or controversy: The need to insist on homousion;
Demonstrate to the world that Christians of the East are not Arians;
Apollinaris was teaching that Christ was not true man.
Attendees: 186 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Theodosius I, Emperor;
St. Basil the Great;
St. Gregory of Nyssa;
St. Gregory of Naz., theologians;
Ratified: Damasus, Pope
Decrees and resolutions: Renewed the work of Nicaea;
Condemned the heresy of the Macedonians (the Holy Spirit was not really God);
Condemned the heresy of Apollinaris (that Christ was not really a man).

Ephesus

When and where: 431.
Crisis or controversy: Nestorius was teaching that Mary was not the mother of God;
Proponents of Nestorius began claiming that Christ was actually two separate persons, human and divine.
Attendees: 250 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Theodosius II, Emperor;
St. Cyril of Alexandria;
St. John Chrysostom;
Ratified: Celestinus I, Pope.
Decrees and resolutions: Condemned Nestorius;
Decreed that Mary was also Theotokos, mother of God;
Declared that Christ is true God and true man, that he has two natures (human and divine) joined in one person.

Chalcedon

When and where: 451. (Ancient seaport of Bithynia on the sea of Marmara)
Crisis or controversy: Monophysites were teaching that Christ had a single divine nature and no human nature.
Attendees: 600 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Marcianus, Emperor;
Ratified: Leo I, Pope.
Decrees and resolutions: Condemned Monophysitism;
Declared that Christ had two distinct natures and was both true God and true man;
Promulgated canons of church discipline.

Constantinople II

When and where: 553.
Crisis or controversy: Emperor Justinian I wanted the Church to consider the orthodoxy of three Greek theologians: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ebas of Edessa.
Attendees: 150 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Justinian I, Emperor;
Decrees and resolutions: Condemned the writings of theologians as having been infested with Nestorianism.

Constantinople III

When and where: 680.
Crisis or controversy: Monothelism was teaching that Christ did not possess a human will.
Attendees: 174 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Constantine IV, Emperor;
Ratified: Leo II, Pope.
Decrees and resolutions: Condemned Monothelism;
Declared that Christ has two wills, human and divine.

Nicaea II

When and where: 787.
Crisis or controversy: Iconoclasts taught that using sacred images was idolatry.
Attendees: 390 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Irene, Empress;
Ratified: Adrian I, Pope.
Decrees and resolutions: Condemned Iconoclasts;
Declared that sacred images may be honored without idolatry.
Promulgated canons of church discipline.

Constantinople IV

When and where: 870.
Crisis or controversy: Needed to decide the right of Patriarch Photius or the restoration of Ignatius.
Attendees: 102 bishops, and the following notables:
Convened: Basil, Emperor;
Ratified: Adrian II, Pope.
Decrees and resolutions: Photius was condemned in 27 canons.

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