In addition to blood transfusions prior to 1994, the major risk factor associated with HCV infection is a history of antischistosomal injection treatment before 1986. Schistosomiasis used to be a common parasitic disease in Egypt acquired through swimming or wading in contaminated irrigation channels or standing water. Thus, farmers and rural populations were at greatest risk, and this is supported by the higher prevalence rate of HCV in the Nile delta and rural areas. Schistosomiasis can lead to urinary tract or liver damage over many years. Prior to 1986 the mainstay of treatment was intravenous tartar emetic. Widespread treatment campaigns were carried out in the countryside of Egypt in the 60s-70s and early 80s. At the time of availability of only glass syringes, needles were routinely inadequately sterilized by boiling due to time restraints and limited resources.