Posted on 03/23/2008 11:36:40 PM PDT by nw_arizona_granny
Americans finding soaring food prices hard to stomach can battle back by growing their own food. [Click image for a larger version] Dean Fosdick Dean Fosdick
Home vegetable gardens appear to be booming as a result of the twin movements to eat local and pinch pennies.
At the Southeastern Flower Show in Atlanta this winter, D. Landreth Seed Co. of New Freedom, Pa., sold three to four times more seed packets than last year, says Barb Melera, president. "This is the first time I've ever heard people say, 'I can grow this more cheaply than I can buy it in the supermarket.' That's a 180-degree turn from the norm."
Roger Doiron, a gardener and fresh-food advocate from Scarborough, Maine, said he turned $85 worth of seeds into more than six months of vegetables for his family of five.
A year later, he says, the family still had "several quarts of tomato sauce, bags of mixed vegetables and ice-cube trays of pesto in the freezer; 20 heads of garlic, a five-gallon crock of sauerkraut, more homegrown hot-pepper sauce than one family could comfortably eat in a year and three sorts of squash, which we make into soups, stews and bread."
[snipped]
She compares the current period of market uncertainty with that of the early- to mid-20th century when the concept of victory gardens became popular.
"A lot of companies during the world wars and the Great Depression era encouraged vegetable gardening as a way of addressing layoffs, reduced wages and such," she says. "Some companies, like U.S. Steel, made gardens available at the workplace. Railroads provided easements they'd rent to employees and others for gardening."
(Excerpt) Read more at dallasnews.com ...
Posted by: “Eleanor
Date: Tue May 27, 2008 4:13 am ((PDT))
As it now *offically* That Season, here’s the site where you want to
go. I use my local one to get blackberries, strawberries, peaches,
apples, and green beans ( all the stuff I can’t actually grow - for canning )
- neat site, too : )
Cheers ~
~ S
http://www.pickyourown.org/
FROM:
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FunOnABudget/
You are welcome.
This WW1 book above, will also fall into the no wheat group, for many of its recipes.
I am amazed at the ways they did without, and thinking the recipes are even more useful today, as the food prices climb even higher.
http://www.garden.org/ediblelandscaping/?page=10steps-organic
Charlie’s 10 Favorite Organic Pest Controls
No matter how good a gardener you are, at some point or another animals, insects, and diseases will attack your plants. Organic gardeners know this is a fact of nature and will tolerate some damage to their fruit trees, berry bushes, vegetables, and herbs. A perfect plant doesn’t mean one that is completely blemish-free. However, if left unchecked a little damage can quickly turn into a lost crop.
There are a number of organic pest control techniques you can use to keep your plants safe and pests at bay. Start now, before disaster strikes in your garden. Here are my top 10 ways to protect and save plants from pest attacks. I know there are other controls and a bevy of home remedies out there, but I consider these some of the best. Tell me your favorite pest control methods and I’ll publish a list in the next issue of Edible Landscaping.
1. Right varieties. The best way to prevent insect and disease attacks is to select the right variety of tree, shrub, or vegetable for your climate and the planting site. A disease-resistant apple tree, such as ‘Liberty’, will require much less spraying than susceptible varieties. A blight-resistant cucumber variety, such as ‘County Fair’, will make controlling this disease much easier.
Raccoons love to munch on sweet corn and dig around in the garden. The best way to control raccoon damage is to exclude them with a sturdy fence.
2. Floating row covers. Nothing stops insects like a physical barrier and one of the best for vegetable crops is the floating row cover. This lightweight, nonwoven fabric lets in light, air, and water but stop insects from feeding, and laying eggs. Row covers work great on greens, broccoli, root crops, and any crop that doesn’t need pollination by bees. They will also protect seedlings from cold temperatures down to 28 degrees F or lower, depending on the thickness of the fabric.
3. Electric fence. Speaking of barriers, an electric fence is one of the only sure ways to keep Bambi, Rocky Raccoon and other animals from your prized edible patch. While repellent sprays may work for a while, animals are smart enough to get used to the spray and move in anyway. If deer pressure is low use a single strand of electric fence wire 30 inches off the ground. In regions with large populations of hungry deer, use multiple strands spaced a few feet apart. The key is to set up the fence early in the season before animals find your vegetable patch or fruit trees. You can “teach” the animals to avoid the fence by baiting it with peanut butter. After a few harmless shocks, they probably will avoid the area all together.
Cabbageworms attack many plants in the broccoli family, chewing on leaves and reducing yields. Spray Bt to control this pest.
4. Bacillus thuriengensis (Bt). This essential organic pesticide is a naturally occurring bacteria that attacks the larvae of butterflies and moths, including cabbageworms, tent caterpillars, corn earworms, hornworms, and cutworms. The beauty of this popular control is it only attacks caterpillars in the Lepidoptera family and doesn’t harm other insects, bees, pets, and humans. The downside is that all butterfly and moth larvae are susceptible to this pesticide, so use it sparingly and avoid it on butterfly larva plants, such as parsley.
There are also strains of Bt that attack Colorado potato beetle larvae (Bt ‘San Diego’) and mosquito larvae (Bt israelensis).
5. Horticultural oil. Unlike its heavier and more toxic cousin dormant oil, horticultural oil is a lightweight, fine-grade petroleum- or vegetable-based oil that coats insect eggs, larvae, and adults and smoothers them without harming foliage. Use oil in the vegetable garden to kill aphids, leafhoppers, spider mites, and whiteflies. A few drops of oil in the tips of developing sweet corn ears controls corn earworm. Oils present few risks to both gardeners and desirable species and integrate well with natural biological controls and dissipate quickly through evaporation, leaving little residue. However, oils can damage plants if applied at excessive rates, on sensitive plants, or on particularly hot (above 100 degrees F) or cold (below 40 degrees F) days.
6. Insecticidal soap. This fatty acid-based product is one of the safest sprays to use in the garden. It primarily kills soft-bodied insects, such as aphids, mealybugs, and whiteflies, but I have to admit a perverse joy in watching handpicked Japanese beetle adults drown when dropped into a pail of soapy water. Commercially formulated insecticidal soaps are better than home remedies because they have been tested to be safe on a variety of plants. However, some plants, such as peas, can be burned by the spray.
Slugs are a big problem during cool, damp weather. They feed on the leaves and flowers of many plants, particularly hosta, lettuce, and greens. Iron phosphate-based baits are a safe and effective control.
7. Iron phosphate for slugs. Slugs and snails love cool, moist weather and dark hiding places and can make a dinner out of your leafy greens. The best methods of control include spacing plants generously so the soil dries quickly and removing mulch where these pests like to hide. Copper wire barriers will keep slugs out of containers and raised beds. One of my favorite products is iron phosphate-based pelleted bait, which I sprinkle in the garden. The pellets have a slug attractant mixed in. When the slugs and snails come to eat the bait the iron phosphate proves fatal, killing the slimy critters without harming other beneficial insects, animals, and humans.
8. Neem oil. This extract from the seeds of the tropical neem tree is nontoxic to pets and humans, but helps control some of our worst pests, such as Japanese beetles. Instead of killing the adults outright, it acts as a deterrent, stopping insects from eating and mating.
Japanese beetles are the scourge of many gardens. They love a wide variety of plants including grapes and raspberries. Handpicking and neem oil sprays can help reduce damage.
9. Spinosad. This soil-dwelling organism was discovered as a by-product of the rum processing industry in Jamaica. A fast-acting bacterium, it kills a range of chewing insects such as caterpillars, thrips, sawflies, leaf beetles, spider mites, and leaf miners. It’s not as effective on sucking insects. It doesn’t harm ladybugs and other beneficial insects.
10. Traps. Fruit trees are notorious for having insect pests attack the developing fruit. While there are tree varieties that resist diseases, to control insects you have two choices: spray or trap. There are two types of traps. One type, such as the apple maggot trap, controls the pest. The codling moth trap is an example of other type of trap and is used to monitor insect populations so you know when to spray. Some traps attract the insects by color and form, such as the yellow sticky cards used to trap whiteflies. Other traps attract the insect with a pheromone lure. Check out fruit tree supply stores for the best traps for the pests in your area.
Other Great Organic Pest Control Stories
Summer’s Bad Guys
Healthy Home Orchards
The Lowdown on Organic Sprays
Thank you very much!
WEBSITES:
To impress your husband and fill your home with the smell of fresh
homemade bread (while you really have been busy making dolls) check out
this site for lots of bread machine recipes.
http://www.bread-maker.net/Bread-maker/Bread-maker-recipes-list.htm
Fantastic free pattern website – this has everything!
http://www.angelfire.com/planet/mcshelpsite/sewingstuff/freepatterns.html/-201k-
Interesting historical dolls
http://www.nebraskahistory.org/exhibits/doll_show/index.htm
From the best newsletter that comes to me, there should still be a part on this site with free doll patterns.....granny.....
Dollmaker’s Journey CUSTOMER CONNECTION
Dream ~ Imagine ~ Create ~ Grow ~ Believe ~ Magic
At http://dollmakersjourney.com we help your creative dreams come true.
May 2008 Issue 78
******************************
Copyright 2008 by Dollmaker’s Journey
Dollmaker’s Journey Customer Connection newsletter is a free e-mail
newsletter. Tell your friends, family and fellow dollmakers about us, and
feel free to forward this newsletter to those who might be interested.
You can visit our companion website at:
http://www.dollmakersjourney.com/
**Notice!**
You can view this issue online. Go to
http://dollmakersjourney.com/newsletter/cc78.html
You can read all the past issues online. Go to:
http://dollmakersjourney.com/newsletter/archives.html
The archives include an easy to follow index to all the past issues.
You are welcome, let us know what you do that works..........
Please.
T O D A Y ‘ S T I P S
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
HOUSEHOLD TIDBITS FROM THE PAST
Today’s tips are from The Ladies’ Union Cook
Book, published in 1903. These are from the
section called “Serviceable Suggestions”.
A spoonful of vinegar put into the water in which
meats or fowls are boiled makes them tender.
In boiling custard or anything containing milk, do
not salt till removing from the fire, and the milk
will not curdle.
When butter is too hard to cream easily, heat the
bowl slightly; never warm the butter.
More tips from later in the book:
Salt and vinegar will remove stains from discolored
cups, etc. and will clean copper and brass.
Salt thrown on soot or fresh ink on a carpet will
help to prevent stain.
A damp cloth dipped in salt will remove egg
stains from silver or tea stains from china dishes.
MORE TIPS: It’s that time of year. Ant tips-—
http://www.oldfashionedliving.com/ants2.html
Biointensive Organic Sustainable Ongoing Microfarms
Also known as backyards.
[I like the fancy name...LOL...granny]
Have you seen the photos?
http://www.bountiful-garden.org/strains.html
Tips to growing Fifteen Foot Tall Tomato Plants
With a little time, some decent sun and a little bit of money, just about anybody should be able to produce their own monster tomato plants.
1) Seeds
Buy some heirloom tomatoes from us at the Farmer’s market or some other vendor. When you slice into the fruit, set aside some of the seeds, rinse them off in a strainer and allow them to dry on a sheet of paper. After they are dry, scrape them off into an envelope (alternatively, buy a packet of heirloom tomato seeds from the store). Why heirloom? They’re fun to grow and have much more flavor than your conventional grocery store tomato. If you’re going to go through the effort of growing your own plants, it doesn’t makes sense to grow anything BUT heirlooms.
2) The mix
Buy bags of the following:
3 cu. Ft. bag Redwood Compost
1 cu. ft. bag top soil
1 cu. ft. bag steer manure.
This mixture is used both for the seedling containers as well as transplanting into the ground. Mix these three soils together thoroughly.
3) Seedling containers
Use one gallon containers to grow the plants in until they’re ready for the ground. This makes a significant difference as the plants can have large established root systems when their transplanted. The plants at the nursery usually come in 4” containers at best and usually smaller so while they may look healthy and tall, the roots are not very deep.
Fill a one gallon container (find them used if you can) with ‘the mix’ and put a couple of seeds in (about 3-4 inches deep) and compress the soil, sometime around March 1st and put outside. Make sure to water frequently if there isn’t enough rain.
When the plants get to around 12” tall, they are ready to be put in the ground.
4) California Clay is your friend
Find a place in your yard where your plants will get plenty of sun. A half day’s worth of sun works if that’s all you got but it needs to be direct sun.
Dig a hole in the California clay (the typical soil just about everywhere here in the bay area) about 18” deep and 18” round and set aside the clay to be used later. Fill in the hole with ‘the mix’ and also add a handful of fish emulsion on that boundary layer between the ‘mix’ and where your plant is going to be. Take a seedling out of a container and place in the hole and then fill in the rest of the area around the plant with ‘the mix’ and compress all of the soil and water fairly vigorously.
5) The Cage.
The ideal cage is created out of cement reinforcing rebar sheets (with 4” x 4” mesh). These cages are strong, tall and easy to work with. You can buy two 4’ x 7’ sheets from Home Depot or you can buy a 100’ roll of the material. Curl the mesh so it makes about a 36” diameter, 7’ tall cylinder. Using wire cutters, cut off the very tips of one of the ends of the cylinder so that you’re left with a set of spikes on one end. Turn these spikes towards the ground and place the cage around your seedling and drive the cage firmly into the ground as far as you can go.
Somewhere in the middle of this monster 12’ tall bush is a 7’ tall, 8’ circumference cylinder (you can slightly see the form at the bottom).
*NOTE, the usage of the word cage is a bit of a misnomer. They are really support structures so don’t confine your plants to the interior of the cage, allow them to roam freely to the outsides. There’s approximately 5 plants growing in this one cage but since they are encourage to grow to outside of it, the plants flourish.
6) The mortar mix.
Using the clay that you’ve set aside, make a thick, pasty mixture with some ground up clay (that you took out of the hole and set aside) and water until the consistency is smooth and the texture is thick enough to set up on it’s own. Take this heavy mix and layer it over the lowest rung of the cage, making a circular mound around the tomato plants. Don’t be afraid to work this mixture with your hands. There’s something very primal about working with clay between your fingers.
This will dry out and form a nice solid base. This serves several purposes:
* keeps the cage sturdy and anchor it down
* keeps water in the hole (and makes the hole ‘deeper’ by making the walls higher)
* prevents runoff of any fertilizer you might use
* cuts down on your water bill
7) The mount
You can extend your 7’ cage to almost 12’ by adding one of the cheap, conical, tomato cages (about the only thing they are good for) to the top. Take the four prongs, bend them out, and then wrap them around the tops of the cylindrical cage at four equidistant points. In all, if you purchase the rebar by the roll, you can build a 12’ tall cage for around $12.
8) Fertilizer
Fish emulsion works well and is naturally organic (as opposed to synthetics like miracle grow). A hybrid mix from Lilly Miller was used on these plants this year (10-10-10 at first and then 5-10-10) that has ‘natural ingredients and minerals’ plus synthetics. These plants were only fertilized only about once a month so it’s not like you need to fertilize every week or two to get monster plants.
Sunland has an organic fertilizer that you can buy at Orchard Supply and Miracle Grow just came out with their own organic line this year but it has yet to hit the store shelves in most retail stores yet.
9) The Love
You can never underestimate the value of the personal attention you give your plants. Taking a moment or two to spend in your garden can be a therapeutic, meditative, relaxing, stress releasing and invigorating diversion from whatever activities you are immersed in and the difference in makes in the plants is enormous.
Stop and smell the tomatoes.
10) Support
A little bit of support goes a long way in helping the vines reach for the heavens. The best and cheapest means of support for the vines is the 16”-20” twist-ties that you commonly find spinach, celery & lettuce rapped in at the grocery store. They work great because the wire on the inside is strong but the paper on the outside is gentle on the plants. Wrap the tie around a branch and then fold it over itself at a 90 degree angle and fold it over twice with firm creases. This will be quite strong.
11) Self-Support
After the plants outgrow whatever support structure you’ve built for them, you can use their own strength to support them to grow even taller. Find one strong stalk coming through the middle of the cage to be used as the ‘center post’. Going outwards, attach other vines to this center post and then cascade the outside vines then to the inside vines. This will all make for a fairly strong lattice of vines.
The RED line in the photo below was drawn in just below the top of the actual cage and the plants grow 2-3 feet above this (and will continue several more feet if the support it there). The red line represents a height of around 9’ off the ground so these plants are nearly 12’ tall.
12) Watering/Irrigation
A drip system works best for tomatoes and will pay for itself with the time and water that you save. They are fairly inexpensive to put in and you can put a battery operated timer on a hose and put the garden in auto pilot. These plants get watered daily but the recommendations is 2-3 times per week. You don’t want to water the leaves, only the roots so that’s one of the reasons to go to a drip system (thanks Kenbrah for the instructions).
*Growing in Containers
Growing in containers can also be very fruitful, so to speak. Manikya Veena she shows off her container grown heirlooms (grown from Frank’s seedlings of course):
She’s over 5’8” and these plants are already over 9’ tall and growing (plus the additional 18” of container height). By the end of the season, these plant should reach at least 12’ tall.
Containers are tricky as they usually require more water so make sure the soil is moist. The conventional wisdom is place a limit of up to two plants per container but these containers have about five plants each and they seem to be doing ok. So much for conventional wisdom.
Enjoy!!!
Hah, I love it. Btw granny, my Zucchini's are only producing male flowers.
I think my zucchini plants are gay. Oh man...
Reason for health benefits of organic milk discovered in new study
PRESS RELEASE 05/27/2008 (version 1)
Categories: Press Releases 2008 | Downloads and other links
Organic milk is the most thoroughly scientifically researched organic food. That research proves organic milk is nutritionally superior and better for human health, and the latest research published today [1] demonstrates it is the diet organic cows enjoy as a requirement of organic standards [2] that delivers better milk.
Dutch Government funded research published last year showed that mothers who drink organic milk produce different, more nutritious breast milk [3]. Children with mothers who drink organic milk are 36% less likely to suffer from eczema [4] [5] (a disease that affects 10% of infants in the EU) [6]. The latest research from Newcastle University shows that organic milk contains more nutritionally desirable fatty acids, vitamins and antioxidants, including up to a staggering 60% more conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) during the summer months. These substances are linked to lower risks of heart disease and cancer [7].
Peter Melchett, Soil Association policy director said:
“This research confirms what organic farmers and consumers have long believed to be true. Some sceptics had thrown doubts on the benefits of organic milk because scientists had not shown precisely how organic farming makes a positive difference – this latest research demonstrates that it is the cows’ organic diet that makes their milk healthier. Other research has shown that the same is true for beef and lamb reared on grass [8] [9] [10].
We believe that the healthy diet and guaranteed free-range lives of organic pigs and chickens means that all organic meat and dairy products are going to be better for you, as well as being best in terms of animal welfare [11]. All farm animals deserve to live an organic lifestyle, and everyone can increase their intake of beneficial vitamins by eating organic food.”
A spokesperson for the Organic Milk Suppliers Cooperative (OMSCo), which represents over 350 organic dairy farmers commented:
“We are extremely pleased that another piece of independent research has been published highlighting the benefits of organic milk. Our farmers follow stringent guidelines and pay higher prices for non-solvent based and GM free feed. As a result of the more natural forage based diet that organic cows enjoy, the milk they produce is of a superior quality with a raft of health benefits to non-organic milk. We hope that this latest research will open the eyes of organic sceptics and encourage more consumers to switch to enjoy the benefits of organic milk.”
ENDS
For media enquiries please contact:
Soil Association press office: 0117 914 2448 press@soilassociation.org
Emma Hockridge, Soil Association policy campaigner: 07909902946 / 0117 914 2433 ehockridge@soilassociation.org
Peter Melchett, policy director: 0774 0951066 / 0117 987 4561 pmelchett@soilassociation.org
Notes to editor:
[1] Butler et al (2008) ‘Fatty acid and fat-soluble antioxidant concentrations in milk from high and low input conventional and organic systems: seasonal variation’, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture J Sci Food Agric 88:1431–1441.
Newcastle University press release: Organic milk is cream of the crop (27 May 2008)
[2] All organic cattle in the EU have grass-based diets and restrict the level of concentrate which can be fed. Soil Association organic standards ensure that farmers allow their cattle to graze on fresh forage throughout the growing season, and require that each cow has over half an acre to graze on. There are no such requirements in non-organic systems.
Soil Association website: Dairy cattle
[3] Rist et al (2007) ‘Influence of organic diet on the amount of conjugated linoleic acids in breast milk of lactating women in the Netherlands’, British Journal of Nutrition, 97, 735–743.
The aim of the study was to find out whether the incorporation of organic dairy and meat products in the maternal diet affects the contents of the conjugated linoleic acid isomers (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acid (TVA) in human breast milk. This research found that the levels of CLA and TVA in human milk can be improved if breastfeeding mothers replace conventional dairy and/or meat products with organic ones.
[4] ‘Consumption of organic foods and risk of atopic disease during the first 2 years of life in the Netherlands’, Louis Bolk Institute Department of Health Care and Nutrition, Driebergen, the Netherlands. Ischa Kummeling, Carel Thijs, Machteld Huber, Lucy P. L. van de Vijver, Bianca E. P. Snijders, John Penders, Foekje Stelma, Ronald van Ree, Piet A. van den Brandt and Pieter C. Dagnelie. Published in the British Journal of Nutrition (2007).
[5]Soil Association press release: Organic milk cuts eczema in children and boosts breast milk (9 Nov 2007)
[6] British Association of Dermatologists: http://www.bad.org.uk
[7] CLA are currently receiving much attention in nutritional research, since there is experimental evidence suggesting that these fatty acids might have anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-diabetic and immune-modulating effects, as well as a favourable influence on body fat composition, i.e. on the proportion of fat tissue to muscle mass.
[8] Research published by scientists at Utah State University in the US found that beef from cattle fed grass-based diets had up to 500% more of two types of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), than beef from animals on typically high cereal-maize diets. The researchers concluded that, ‘A person consuming the high CLA products [milk and red meat from grass fed animals] would have a CLA intake of about 441mg/day…which is well above the minimum intake that has been shown to be effective in reducing the incidence of cancer in animal models’.
Dhiman T R, Seung-Hee, N and Ure, A L, 2005. ‘Factors Affecting Conjugated Linoleic Acid in Milk and Meat’. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 45:463-482
[9] Researchers in Australia have found that grass fed cattle also have higher levels of beneficial Omega-3 fatty acids and lower levels of Omega-6 fatty acids.
Ponnampalam, E N, Mann, N J and Sinclair, A J, 2006. ‘Effect of feeding systems on omega-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid and trans fatty acids in Australian beef cuts: potential impact on human health’. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 15: 21-29
[10] Researchers at the Jonsson Cancer Center in the US have recently shown that diets high in Omega-3 fatty acids and low in Omega-6 fatty acids lower the inflammatory response known to promote the growth of prostate cancer tumours.
‘Altering Fatty Acid Levels In Diet May Reduce Prostate Cancer Growth Rate’, ScienceDaily (Aug. 1, 2006)
[11] “Organic farming has the potential to offer the very highest standards of animal welfare. Compassion in World Farming believes that the Soil Association’s welfare standards are leading in the field.” Joyce d’Silva, Compassion in World Farming
CIWF website: http://www.soilassociation.org/animalwelfare
Good quality, organic bread offers benefits for growers, suppliers and consumers
PRESS RELEASE 03/12/2008 (version 2)
Categories: Press Releases 2008 | Downloads and other links
As the Food Standards Agency’s (FSA) proposal to fortify all bread with folic acid faces new delays [1], the latest review from the government’s Pesticides Residues Committee (PRC) has revealed that over half of bread sampled contained pesticides. Almost a quarter of samples of bread contained multiple pesticides. [2] This is a 3% increase of the number of samples containing pesticides from the last time bread was sampled by the PRC in 2006. [3]
A variety of factors, including changes in wheat varieties, milling methods and baking technology have made industrial bread unpalatable and indigestible for significant numbers of people. On top of these problems, the FSA are proposing compulsory mass medication through bread. To our delight, the decision to allow this has just been further delayed. [4]
The PRC results show that no organic samples of the foods tested contained pesticides. [5]
Emma Hockridge, Soil Association policy campaigner says:
“We want to see a resurgence in good quality bread from traditional British milling varieties. This will add value and nutritional goodness to bread naturally. Increasing consumption of good quality bread made from traditional wheat could also bring huge opportunities for British farmers. High quality bread has benefits for farmers, the environment and consumers”.
The Soil Association strongly supports the new Real Bread Campaign [6] headed by Andrew Whitley, chair of the Soil Association’s Processing Standards Committee , which aims to encourage the production, consumption and enjoyment of bread made with natural and organic ingredients. The Real Bread Campaign aims to put grain and bread production at the heart of a sustainable ecological food system.
Ends
For media enquiries please contact:
Emma Hockridge, Soil Association policy campaigner, 07909 902 946 / 0117 914 2433 / hockridge@soilassocation.org
Notes to Editors:
[1] http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2008/mar/folic
[2] http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/uploadedfiles/Web_Assets/PRC/Q3_2007_Final.pdf
54% of bread samples contained pesticides, and 24% of those contained multiple pesticides
[3] http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/uploadedfiles/Web_Assets/PRC/Q3_2007_Final.pdf
[4] http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2007/jun/folateupdate
The Soil Association believes good health is founded on having a diet predominantly composed of minimally processed wholefoods. We cannot support food policies that accept the routine removal and degradation of nutrients by refining and other processing as normal, and then encourage the replacement of a few of the missing elements by ‘fortification’ with synthetic versions.
We support moves to improve the diet and promote a much greater consumption of wholefoods and less refined, processed foods; this would also address the many serious public health problems that are affecting far larger numbers of people than NTD births.
We are also concerned about possible long-term effects of folic acid supplementation and fortification, particularly in the light of the recent studies showing long-term increases in mortality from the use of vitamin supplements, compared to the consumption of the natural phytonutrients
[5] http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/uploadedfiles/Web_Assets/PRC/Q3_2007_Final.pdf
[6] http://www.realbreadcampaign.org
[I did not know about how this works. granny]
YOU ARE AT: HOME » INFORMATION CENTRE » LIBRARY » PRESS RELEASES 2008
Soil Association first organisation in the world to ban nanoparticles -
potentially toxic beauty products that get right under your skin
PRESS RELEASE 01/17/2008 (version 4)
Categories: Press Releases 2008 | Downloads and other links
As of January 2008, the Soil Association has banned the use of man-made nanomaterials from all Soil Association certified organic products. [1] This applies particularly to health and beauty products, but also to food and textiles. Ahead of the Government [2], we are the first organisation in the world to take action against this hazardous, potentially toxic technology that poses a serious new threat to human health.
Whilst the Soil Association recognises there may be benefits from nanotechnology - it has the potential to radically, and positively, transform many sectors of industry including medicine (e.g. delivering drugs that target specific cells) and for renewable energy such as fuel and solar power. Yet, of the $9 billion per year being invested globally in nanotechnology, much is going to the development of cosmetics and health products. Many well-known companies such as L’Oreal, Unilever, Boots and Lancome are already developing and introducing these super fine particles into their products and none of these products are required to have labelling to warn consumers. [3]
Yet there is little scientific understanding about how these substances affect living organisms, indeed initial studies show negative effects. Three years ago, scientists advised the Government that the release of nanoparticles should be “avoided as far as possible”. Though the Government acknowledged the risks, no action has been taken to impose controls. Following the precautionary approach, in line with organic principles, the Soil Association Standard’s Board has banned manufactured nanoparticles as ingredients under our organic standards. We are the first organisation in the world to take regulatory action against the use of nanoparticles to safeguard the public. This initiative goes to the core of the organic movement’s values of protecting human health.
Gundula Azeez, Soil Association policy manager, said:
“The Soil Association is the first organisation in the world to ban nanoparticles. There should be no place for nanoparticles in health and beauty products or food. We are deeply concerned at the government’s failure to follow scientific advice and regulate products. There should be an immediate freeze on the commercial release of nanomaterials until there is a sound body of scientific research into all the health impacts. As we saw with GM, the government is ignoring the initial indications of risk and giving the benefit of the doubt to commercial interest rather than the protection of human health.” [4]
Professor Vyvyan Howard, nanotechnology researcher at University of Ulster, said:
“The term nanotechnology covers a vast range of applications. Many are not threatening at all, such as nano-structured surfaces for self cleaning glass. But in the areas of health and beauty and food more research must be done. There is considerable evidence that nanoparticles are toxic and potentially hazardous.”
Ends
For more information please contact:
Soil Association press office: 0117 914 2448 / press@soilassociation.org
Gundula Azeez, Soil Association policy manager: 0117 987 4560 / 07835 260 134
Professor Vyvyan C Howard, nanotech researcher at the University of Ulster: 0151 794 7833
Jim Thomas, nanotech policy researcher at ETC, an international technology watchdog: 07876 122 266 / jim@etcgroup.org
Notes to editors:
[1] This new standard bans man-made nanomaterials whose basic particle size is less than 125nm and whose mean particle size is less than 200nm.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is concerned with the manipulation of matter on the atomic and molecular scale to produce new materials. A nanometre (nm) is a millionth of a millimetre (one 80,000th of the width of a human hair) and a nanoparticle is generally defined as particles of chemicals that are within the range 0.2-100nm.
Nanotechnology can be applied to electronics, food, agriculture, medicines, cosmetics, textiles, energy generation and packaging as well as many other things. Examples of nanotechnology in commercial use include electrical circuits, transparent sun creams, targeted drug delivery, stain resistant clothing and self cleaning glass.
When the particle size of a chemical is so tiny, its properties change and chemicals exhibit novel ‘quantum’ effects, presenting possible new dangers such as unidentified toxicity or changed electrical properties. The tiny size also means that nanoparticles have abnormally high levels of solubility and mobility and can pass through the body’s membranes - such as the membranes of our skin, lungs, intestines, the blood/brain barrier and the placenta. The fact that nanoparticles can reach all parts of our body means they may accumulate or override the normal control systems that manage our complex biochemistry, with unidentified health effects.
The Soil Association’s concerns are related to man-made nanoparticles; we are not objecting to natural nanoparticles such as soot produced by volcanoes (life has evolved with these). It is also important to distinguish between natural processes that occur on the nano-scale (i.e. they involve the interaction of molecules), such as cell division, and artificial ones that are used to produce new materials.
[2] The Government’s response so far?
In an attempt to avoid the controversies that arose around GM, the UK Government commissioned a report by the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering. The 2004 report ‘Nanosciences and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties’ was widely welcomed and addressed the most important regulatory needs to protect the public. It recommended that the release of nanoparticles should be “avoided as far as possible”, labelling of consumer products, and that research be conducted into the toxicity and bio-accumulation of nanoparticles and nanotubes. See: http://www.nanotec.org.uk/report/chapter10.pdf
In February 2005, the UK government responded to the report, agreeing with its conclusions. It said: “As a precautionary measure...releases to the environment should be minimised until the possible risks...are better understood.” It also said “The government accepts that chemicals in the form of nanoparticles or nanotubes can exhibit different properties...Safety testing on the basis of a larger form of a chemical cannot be used to infer the safety of the nanoparticulate form...Ingredients in the form of manufactured free nanoparticles should undergo a thorough safety assessment...before they are used in consumer products. The government believes in the consumer being able to make informed choices.” See: http://www.ost.gov.uk/policy/issues/nanotech_final.pdf
However, three years later, no regulations have been adopted. A voluntary industry labelling scheme is being developed - the Soil Association is on the working group - but some of the major companies that are developing consumer products with nanomaterials are believed to be reluctant to support labelling proposals (such as L’Oreal).
[3] Nanomaterials: Undersized, unregulated and already here, Corporate Watch (2007)
http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/?lid=2147
Consumers unaware of nano-revolution, Which? press release (20 Dec 2007)
http://www.which.co.uk/press/press_topics/campaign_news/other_issues/nantechnology_201207_571_128032.jsp
Nanomaterials are also being used in: L’Oreal ‘Plenitude Revitalift’ anti-wrinkle cream, Lancome’s Renergie Lift, Almay’s Clear Complexion Concealer, various Neutrogena cosmetics by Johnson and Johnson, Olay’s All Day Complete Care cream with UV protection and Revlon’s ColourStay range.
Nanotechnology is widely used in sunscreens, including the popular Boots Soltan range. Titanium dioxide is used as a white pigment in a range of products such as paint and food colouring. It is also used in sunscreens for its ability to scatter UV light, where it is seen as a ‘non-toxic mineral’ alternative to chemically acting sun creams. However, research has shown that nano-sized titanium dioxide - which makes the sunscreen transparent and therefore more marketable - “might be toxic to various types of cell”, can enter the brain and may trigger cell death.
Additionally, US Government research has found that nano-size titanium dioxide particles cause ‘oxidative stress’ in the brain cells of mice which may promote neuro-degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s (Nature, 16 June 2006). A European scientific committee considered the safety of using particle coatings for titanium dioxide, in collaboration with the industry, and afterwards pronounced the commercial use of all types of titanium dioxide safe. However, the committee did not consider the safety of exposure to nano-sized particles and serious concerns remain.
[4] Is nanotechnology like GM?
There are many parallels with GM in the way nanotechnology is developing. As with GM:
* Commercial opportunities have run ahead of scientific understanding and regulatory control. The risks of nanotechnology are still largely unknown, untested and unpredictable.
* The industry is trying to win over Government backing with compelling claims about the benefits of the technology and win over consumers by promoting individual products, whilst neglecting the fundamental issues of safety.
* Initial studies show some negative effects and there is a list of potential health impacts that have yet to be investigated by scientists.
* Regulators have not reacted to the scientific evidence of health effects for products that are already commercialised (titanium dioxide nanoparticles), instead accepting industry reassurances and unpublished industry evidence.
* The standard of proof is being set very high for any concerns, but low for reasons to dismiss concerns and without the context of a body of established scientific knowledge to judge conflicting arguments.
* Concerns are being downplayed on the basis of absence of any consensus over health problems and with arguments that some nanoparticles occur in nature or have been produced by industry for some time (true, but not on the scale and with the chemical range being developed now; anyway health concerns exist for some of these such as air pollution).
What is worse than GM is that there is no official assessment process or labelling of the products, and nano-substances are being rapidly introduced to the market. This is a very bad starting point for the responsible introduction of a powerful new technology.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NANOMATERIAL
Nanoparticles
Small particles of chemicals where at least one dimension is less than 100 nm. Nanoparticles can be made from a wide range of materials. These include single elements such as iron, silver and carbon; simple molecules such as titanium dioxide and zinc oxide (both used in sun creams); through to complex molecules such as pharmaceuticals. A number of different methods are used to make nanoparticles, including high temperature processes, chemical reactions and attrition (milling or grinding).
Nanocapsules
L’Oreal, Johnson & Johnson and Estee Lauder use nanocapsules in some of their products to deliver active ingredients deeper into the skin. They are also called ‘nanosomes’ or nanoscale liposomes. Nanocapsules are small droplets of liquid, often slightly bigger than nanoscale, enclosed in a nano-thick shell. They are essentially a delivery mechanism designed to get an active ingredient to a specific location, releasing their contents only under certain conditions. Currently they are used in cosmetics to deliver active chemicals deeper into the skin and some nutrient supplements for enhanced absorption.
They are also being developed for use in some foods (such as a low fat mayonnaise where the suspended oil droplets are only made of a thin shell of oil, rather then entire droplets of oil) and pharmaceuticals.
Nanoemulsions
These are suspensions of nanosized droplets of one liquid (such as an oil) in another liquid (such as water). They have an extremely high surface tension, and when in contact with single celled organisms such as bacteria or fungal spores, they rupture the cells, killing the organisms. They are toxic to microbes at levels that are not irritating to the skin. While this may have a use in medicine, future uses may include consumer products such as detergents and shampoos. The Soil Association’s concern is that environmental sterility in domestic situations - such as a depleted bacterial population on the skin or on household surfaces - is not a healthy objective. There is scientific evidence that exposure to normal levels of benign environmental bacteria is important, particularly for children, for the development of a healthy immune system and to avoid the development of allergies and other immune disorders that are of increasing prevalence due to excessive hygiene in many modern households. (New Scientist, 16 April 2005)
Carbon ‘bucky balls’
These are molecules composed of 60 atoms of carbon, arranged into a football-shaped hollow sphere. The full technical name is Buckminster fullerene molecules. They are already being used in some very expensive face creams. For example, the London-based company Zelens uses buckyballs in their day and night cream. It claims that they scavenge ‘free radicals’ and thus protect against aging. But there are disputed reports of toxic effects. (”Nanocosmetics: Buyer Beware. Is that expensive jar of skin cream on my dresser safe to use?”, Technology Review, March/April 2007).
Nanotubes
‘Nanotubes’ are tubular structures commonly made of carbon. They are 1 to 2 nm in diameter. At their simplest, nanotubes are a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a cylinder (single-wall carbon nanotubes). Carbon nanotubes have a number of interesting properties. They are very strong (100 times stronger than steel), very light (one sixth the weight of steel) and they have unique electrical properties (10 times more conductive than copper). A wide range of applications are being developed including additives to plastics and other composites (to increase strength and conductivity), flat panel displays and energy storage (batteries and fuel cells).
Useful references:
- UK Government: ‘Response To The Royal Society And Royal Academy of Engineering Report: ‘Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties’, Feb 2005. http://www.ost.gov.uk/policy/issues/introduction.htm
- Insurance Industry, Nanotechnology: Small matter, many unknowns, Swiss Re, 2004. http://www.swissre.com
- European Parliament: ‘Nanotechnology and Regulation within the framework of the Precautionary Principle. Final Report for ITRE Committee of the European Parliament’. Haum, Petschow, Steinfeldt, Institut für ökologische Wirstschaftforschung (IÖW) gGmbH, Berlin, 11 Feb 2004.
- European Commission : ‘Nanotechnologies: A Preliminary Risk Analysis on the Basis of a Workshop Organized in Brussels on 1-2 March 2004 by the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate General of the European Commission’, May 2004. http://europa.eu.int/comm/health/ph_risk/events_risk_en.htm
- Scientific Review: Nanoparticles - known and unknown health risks Peter HM Hoet, Irene Brüske-Hohlfeld, Oleg V Salata Journal of Nanobiotechnology 2004, 2:12, 8 Dec 2004.
- Civil Society Groups:’Size Matters: the Case for a Global Moratorium’, April 2003. Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration (ETC Group). http://www.etcgroup.org
[I am sure we could find the same reports from the U.S., until then I see no reason to not think that whatever is happening in the U.K. is happening here.... granny]
Another good reason to avoid factory-farmed chickens and eggs!
Government study shows Salmonella levels over five times higher in intensive egg production than organic
PRESS RELEASE 01/30/2008 (version 3)
Categories: Press Releases 2008 | Downloads and other links
The Soil Association can reveal that a recent government survey [1] shows that organic laying hen farms have a significantly lower level of Salmonella. Salmonella is a bacterium that causes one of the commonest forms of food poisoning worldwide. [2]
The study showed that 23.4 per cent of farms with caged hens tested positive for salmonella compared to 4.4 per cent in organic flocks and 6.5 per cent in free-range flocks.
The research also showed that the highest prevalence of salmonella occurred in the largest holding size category (30,000 birds or more). This was over four times the average level of salmonella found in flocks closer to the maximum size allowed under Soil Association organic standards. [3]
These results support Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall and his ‘Chicken Out’ campaign to improve the welfare standards of chicken production. [4] It also adds weight to the argument that although ‘free-range’ production would certainly be a positive step forward, it is still some way behind the Soil Association’s organic poultry systems [5], which ensure truly free range birds and offer the highest standards of animal welfare as acknowledged by respected animal welfare groups such as Compassion in World Farming.
Emma Hockridge, Soil Association policy department said:
“Anyone watching Hugh and Jamie reveal the appalling conditions millions of chickens endure in the cramped, windowless sheds of factory farms will be in no doubt that organic and free-range chickens have a better life.
“This research confirms the Soil Association’s view that there are serious potential human health implications from such intensive systems. Whilst Salmonella food poisoning can be avoided through proper cooking of eggs and meat, anything that reduces the incidence of this bug should be encouraged – like genuine free-range, organic farming.”
Ends
For media enquiries please contact:
Soil Association press office 0117 914 2448 / press@soilassociation.org
Notes to editor:
[1] Survey of the prevalence of Salmonella species on commercial laying farms in the United Kingdom Published in The Veterinary Record (2007) 161; 471-476
[2] Around 15,000 cases of Salmonella are reported to the UK’s Health Protection Agency (HPA) each year. http://194.74.226.162/hpa/news/articles/press_releases/2004/041005_salmonella.htm
http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40024928
[3] Intensively farmed chickens reared for meat can be housed in flocks 30 – 40,000 strong. Even the RSPCA’s Freedom Food standards allow 16,000 egg-laying birds per house, and there is no limit on flock size for free-range meat birds.
In contrast, Soil Association organic standards recommend flock sizes of 500 - with absolute maximum flock sizes of 1,000 for meat birds and 2,000 for egg birds allowed only with special permission and additional management measures in place.
[4] Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall’s Chicken Out campaign: http://www.chickenout.tv
[5] Some battery egg operations have as many as half a million birds. Most battery cages house four or five birds, each with about as much room as an A4 sheet of paper. All animals on Soil Association organic farms must have access to outdoor ranges and pasture, with an emphasis on enabling the animals to express their natural behaviour. Unlike intensively reared birds, organic chickens can’t be given routine doses of antibiotics which weaken the animal’s natural immune system so increasing reliance on drugs, as well as being linked to creating antibiotic resistant ‘superbugs’ with serious human health implications.
There are now approximately 29 million egg-layers in the UK over 70 per cent of which are housed in battery cages. Today three-quarters of the UK’s eggs come from fewer than 300 units, each with 20,000 or more layers.
Batteries not included - executive summary:http://www.soilassociation.org/web/sa/saweb.nsf/d39dda83e1f3c019802570ad005b4516/c34bd66834fb014380256df60043d53f!OpenDocument
[Of course, I was forced to post this, who would have thought of this bit of research..........?
granny]
10011: Feeding with chicory roots reduces the amount of odorous compounds in colon and rectal contents of pigs
Jensen, M.T. and Hansen, L.L. (2006) Feeding with chicory roots reduces the amount of odorous compounds in colon and rectal contents of pigs. Animal Science 82(3):pp. 369-376.**
Full text available as:
PDF - Requires Adobe Acrobat Reader or other PDF viewer.
Summary
Sixteen pigs (eight entire males and eight females) were given individually two diets, control and control added 25% chopped chicory roots for 2 months before slaughter. Samples were taken from the contents in colon and rectum and subjected to GC-MS analysis for amount of odour impact compounds. The compounds 2-pentanone, ethylbutyrate,
propylpropionate, butyric acid, ethyl-2-methylbutyrate, p-cresol, indole and skatole showed a significant difference between the two treatments. The esters, which have relatively pleasant, often fruity odours, increased in the chicory treatment, whereas the malodorous compounds, p-cresol, indole and skatole decreased in the chicory treatment. The measured amounts of compounds were corrected for their odour thresholds as different compounds can have widely different odour thresholds. Principal components analysis was then used to analyse the raw and corrected data results. p-Cresol was the most malodorous compound and together with skatole and indole count as the most malodorous compounds in the colon and rectum cotents. However, butyric acid also had some minor influence. Feeding chicory roots decreased significantly the concentrations of these malodorous compounds, especially if the lowest odour threshold values are used as correction factors.
Document Language: English
Keywords: chicory, pigs, odour, intestines, stables.
Subject Areas: “Organics” in general
Research affiliation: Denmark > DARCOF II (2000-2005) > II. 3 (PROSBIO) Production of steers and use of bioactive forages
Denmark > DARCOF II (2000-2005) > II.12 (PROSQUAL) Product quality and consumer perception of organic beef and pork ...
Funding Part: 5-25%
Total budget (Euro): 0
Orgprints ID Number: 10011
Contact: Balling, Anne Hjorth
Deposited On: 29 November 2006
EPrint Type: Journal paper
Published?: Published
Peer Review Status: Peer-reviewed and accepted
http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/01aglibwelcome.html
http://www.soilandhealth.org/index.html
Soil And Health Library
Health begins in the soil; Healing begins with hygiene; Liberty begins with freedom.
This website provides a large number of free e-books available for immediate download. The books are mainly about holistic agriculture, holistic health and self-sufficient homestead living. There are secondary collections about social criticism and transformational psychology. No fees are collected for this service.
Upon special request the Soil and Health Library provides custom-made digital copies of a far wider range of books in the same subject areas for its patrons, delivered on CD-ROM by post. There is a small fee for this service.
All the library’s subject areas can be comprehended as an inter-related whole and when this is done its books constitute a self-guided course of study or a self-teaching curriculum that connects agricultural methods to the health of animals and humans, shows how to prevent and heal disease and increase longevity, suggests how to live a more fulfilling life and reveals social forces working against that possibility.
The Free Digitalized Library:
There are four major subject areas:
Radical Agriculture. The nutritional qualites of food and consequently the health of the animals and humans eating that food are determined by soil fertility. This section’s interest is far wider than organic gardening and farming; other health-determined approaches to food-raising are also included. Go to the Agriculture Library
The Restoration and Maintenance of Health. Nutritional medicine heals disease, builds and maintains health with diet—and sometimes heals with fasting or other forms of dietary restriction. There are many approaches represented in this collection. There is also a collection concerning longevity and nutritional anthropology. Go to the Health Library
Achieving Personal Sovereignty. Physical, mental, and spiritual health are linked to one’s lifestyle. This collection focuses on liberating activities, especially homesteading and the skills it takes to do that—small-scale entrepreneuring, financial independence, frugality, and voluntary simplicity. There is also a collection of social criticism, especially from a back-to-the-land point of view. Go to the Personal Sovereignty Library
Achieving Spiritual Freedom. There are many seemingly-different self-betterment roads. The books in this collection seek to empower a person to effect their own development in an independent manner. Go to the Spiritual Freedom Library.
Additionally
Clippings and Miscellaneous. Since this library’s beginning patrons have sent information and URLs where interesting bits of information and viewpoints could be found. Here you will find articles and essays and etc. that support and enhance the information found in our book collections. Go to the Clipping File.
Latest E-Books Added. Digitalized titles added to the online Soil and Health Library in the last few months, click here:
[I see several that I want to read...granny]
[http://eap.mcgill.ca/Publications/eap_head.htm]
EAP Publication - 35
NUTRITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS of ORGANIC, FRESHLY STONE-GROUND, SOURDOUGH & - CONVENTIONAL BREADS
by
Judy Campbell, B.Sc.,
Mechtild Hauser,
and
Stuart Hill, B.Sc., Ph.D., P.Ag.,
INTRODUCTION
Consumers concerned about their health are changing their dietary habits. Yet most are unaware of the potential nutritional value of bread, which makes up a major part of their diet. However, comprehensive information concerning this topic is not readily available. This paper compares the nutritional characteristics of organic, freshly stone-ground, sourdough breads with conventional breads, highlighting the factors which inhibit or enhance its nutritional value.
A brief history of wheat, its milling, and bread-making are included to enable the reader to better understand factors that are responsible for the decline or the improvement of the nutritional quality of bread.
IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT AND BREAD
Cereal grains and legumes play an important role in supplying the nutrients, as well as over 70% of the daily energy requirements, of over two-thirds of the world’s population (Edwards et al. 1971). A Nationwide (USA) Food Consumption Survey in 1977-78 found that cereal product consumption was equivalent to 226 grams of flour per day for men and 156 grams for women (Guthrie, 1989). Bread, the most common form of cereal intake in many countries has been designated the Staff of lifer, and rightly so, since it contains more nutrients per weight than meat, milk, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables (Thomas, 1976).
Egyptians are believed to be responsible for introducing the process of leavening around 4000 B.C. (Spicer, 1975). For a long time, bread was in fact central to their economy, as wages and bills were often paid in the form of dough (Bread Winners, 1978).
Bread may be made from various cereals, grains, and legumes. Wheat, being the oldest cereal known to man (Jenkins, 1975), is the most common. Today, wheat is the world’s dominant cereal crop (Davidson & Passmore, 1986). Total world production is about 250 grams per person per day. In its unrefined state this could supply 800 calories and 30 grams of protein per person were it evenly distributed worldwide (Davis, 1981). This amount would also supply a 25 to 49 year old man with 30% of his energy requirements and 49% of his protein requirements (Health & Welfare, 1990). Although wheat consumption in the US decreased until the early 1970s, it has since stabilized (Pomeranz, 1988). Wheat-based foods now supply only about 20% of the daily energy requirements of US citizens but are the main source (30%) of dietary fibre in the USA (Anderson, 1985).
Wheat’s pleasant flavor, long shelf-life, and unique gluten-forming characteristics (Nelson, 1985) make it the most popular grain for bread-making. Other grains used include barley, millet, oats, and rye, as well as nuts and acorns. As a result of wheat- breeding, many of the early wheat varieties, including emmer and spelt, were neglected and are little known today. Wheat breeding focused on improving both crop yield and baking qualities. In Germany, 1000-grain weight has increased by about 40% between 1938 and 1971, resulting in a larger wheat endosperm - and therefore proportionally more starch and protein, yet less vitamins and minerals (Thomas, 1990).
Rye is a grain commonly used for bread-making in some European countries and in the Soviet Union (Jenkins, 1975), partly because rye produces higher yields on poorer soils than does wheat.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF WHEAT AND RYE
The kernel of wheat is composed of the outer bran layer, the germ, and the endosperm. It is rich in nutrients, many of which are concentrated in the bran and germ. Of special importance is that it contains the entire B complex, except for vitamin B12. B vitamins function as cofactors in many metabolic reactions involved in the release of energy (Birdsall, 1985).
The germ, which includes the scutellum, is especially rich in vitamins B and E, high quality protein, unsaturated fats, minerals, and carbohydrates. The bran consists mostly of the insoluble carbohydrate cellulose, and contains incomplete protein, traces of B vitamins, and minerals - especially iron. The endosperm is the largest part of the grain, and consists mostly of the carbohydrate starch, incomplete protein, and trace amounts of vitamins and minerals.
Significant variations in the content of grains occur because of variety, crop year, area, fertilizer, and soil type. It must therefore be kept in mind that values expressed in tables reflect average values. The following table, taken from Guthrie (1989), shows the percent distribution of the major nutrients in cereal grains.
The following table of data for the major components of wheat was taken from Souci (1981). Values are in grams per 100 crams of the grain portion referred to, except for minerals quantities which are expressed in milligrams and the energy units which are kilocalories and kilojoules.
Because of its high content of vitamin E, wheat germ is promoted as a health food, and has been proposed as a cure for almost every disease. Recent studies have shown that vitamin E increases the desirable HDL cholesterol in women, though in men only if they initially had low levels. Animal studies have also shown that vitamin E protects against free radicals released by the body when it is exposed to toxic chemicals. Vitamin E is used to treat intermittent claudication, which involves cramps in the calf muscles at night and extreme pain while walking. Vitamin E may be helpful for fibrocystic breast disease (Guthrie,1989).
Other vitamins and numerous other minerals are found in the wheat kernels, though in small amounts. These include carotene, vitamin B6 or pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, biotin, and folic acid, vitamin C, and vitamin K. Other minerals are sodium, calcium, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chromium, molybdenium, fluoride, iodine, boron, selenium, lead, aluminum, and siliconioxide (Souci, 1981). The body is capable of converting the carotene to produce one sixth its amount as vitamin A (Health ~ Welfare, 1990).
The nutritional value of wheat is improved by milling, which increases its digestibility, and by moderate heat and humidity which inactivate enzyme inhibitors and other heat-sensitive toxic factors, and denature protein (Nierle, 1984).
Despite all its many nutritional qualities, wheat cannot meet all nutritional needs. Since it lacks adequate amounts of certain essential nutrients - vitamins A, B12, and C, fats and the amino acid Iysine. These must come from other sources.
The quality of a protein is determined by the kind and composition of its constituent amino acids. When all essential amino acids are present in the proportions capable of promoting growth, the protein is complete, of good quality, and of high biological value (BV), and would result in a high net protein utilization (NPU) by the body. If a protein has a relatively small amount of one essential amino acid (called the limiting amino acid), body tissue repair will occur, but growth cannot be supported (Guthrie, 1989).
Lysine is the limiting essential amino acid in cereals. A greater intake of Iysine than that found in wheat is especially important for children. Wheat protein is adequate for adults, since they have been shown to maintain nitrogen equilibrium (intake of nitrogen from protein = loss), or to be in slightly positive nitrogen balance (intake = loss) when consuming bread diets (Bolourchi et al., 1968; Betschart et al., 1985; Young and Pellett, 1985). The requirements for Iysine are about three times less for adults than for children (Thomas, 1986). Protein from rye has a higher biological value (or net protein value which is net protein utilized) than does wheat because of its superior amino acid composition (Mender, 1983). Wheat contains about 20% to more protein than rye. However, rye contains 30% more of the amino acid Iysine than does wheat. Rye also contains more calcium and fluoride (Thomas, 1986).
To assure an adequate supply of Iysine, bread made solely from grain should be consumed in combination with milk products, meat, nuts, or legumes. There is a need for some animal products, since they are the only sources of vitamin B12, apart from intestinal bacteria capable of producing some (Thomas, 1986). Large deficiencies of this vitamin lead to anemia (Guthrie, 1989). Fruits and vegetables are required to provide the missing vitamins A and C, and fats are needed to supply essential fatty acids, because wheat and rye contain very little fat (about 2%).
Component
Endosperm
Bran
pericarp/aleurone
Germ
Scutellum
Protein
72
4/15
3
5
Total Mineral
20
7/61
4
8
Vit B1 (thiamin)
3
1/32
2
62
Vit B2 (Riboflavin)
32
5/37
12
14
Niacin (a B vitamin)
12
4/82
1
1
Vit B6 (Pyridoxine)
6
12/61
8
12
Pantothenic Acid
43
9/41
3
4
The following table of data for the major components of wheat was taken from a book by Souci (1981). Values are in grams per 100 grams of the grain portion referred to, except for mineral quantities which are expressed in milligrams and the energy units which are kilocalories and kiloJoules.
Component Endosperm Germ Bran
Carbohydrates 74.0 46.0 51.2
Starch
72.5 10-30 12.2
Fibre (insoluble)
3.3 8.1 45.0
Protein 10.6 26.6 16.0
Lysine
0.25 1.62 0.64
Fat 0.98 9.2 4.65
Minerals 0.35 4.2 4.15
Phosphorus
108 1100 1240
Potassium
108 837 1390
Magnesium
21 250 590
Iron
1.95 8.1 12.9
Vitamins
B1 (thiamin) 0.06 2.01 0.65
B2 (riboflavin) 0.03 0.72 0.51
Nicotinamide (or niacin) 0.7 4.5 17.7
E 2.3 27.6 9.1
Water 13.9 11.7 11.5
Energy (kcal/KJ) 355/1490 346/1450 188/789
STONE-GRINDING OF GRAIN
In the third century B.C., rotary grindstones powered by animals, and small rotary hand mills called querns, replaced stone or wooden mortars and pestles for the grinding of grains. Querns are still used in rural areas of the Middle East, Far East, and parts of Africa (Hall, 1974).
There are several advantages to stone-ground wheat flour. The endosperm, bran, and germ remain in their natural, original proportions. Because the stones grind slowly, the wheat germ is not exposed to excessive temperatures. Heat causes the fat from the germ portion to oxidize and become rancid and much of the vitamins to be destroyed (Aubert, 1989). Since only a small amount of grain is ground at once, the fat from the germ is well distributed which also minimizes spoilage (Mount, 1975). Nutritive losses due to oxygen exposure are also limited by the fact that stone-ground flour is usually coarser (Thomas, 1976). As expressed in The Bread Book (Leonard, 1990), stone-ground flour is preferred by many bakers and natural food advocates because of its texture, its sweet and nutty flavour, and the beliefs that it is nutritionally superior and has a better baking quality than steel-roller-milled flour. Moritz and Jones (1950) and Schultz et al. (1942) showed that stone-milled flour was relatively high in thiamin, compared to roller-milled flour, especially when from hard wheat.
ADVANTAGES OF FRESH FLOUR
Because grains contain only about 12% water (or about 0.6 water activity), they are not predisposed to spoilage. However, grinding removes the protective layers and endangers the grain’s biological stability. Deterioration of sensory and nutritional qualities depends on storage conditions, such as temperature, humidity, oxygen concentration, and light exposure. The lower the water activity, the lower is the loss of vitamins (Munzing, 1987). For example, a vitamin E loss of only about 23% occurred after a 13 months of storage at a 0.6 water activity (Rothe 1963, Plasch 1984, Pelschenke 1961). In order to reduce oxidation of Essential compounds and the development of rancidity, many authors recommend storing ground flour for no more than two weeks (Solder 1984, Bruker 1984, Schnitzer 1986, Schnitzer (no year), Thomas 1982, Thomas 1986, Koerber 1986). Antioxidants present naturally in grains (vitamin E and lecithin) help prevent oxidation of the fatty acids and the associated rancidity only for a limited time, and under ‘favourable’ conditions.
Glutamic acid decarboxylase, the most sensitive enzyme in the grain, is used to indicate the health of the grain. When heated or exposed to increased humidity, even under ‘favourable’ conditions, it losses activity very quickly in wheat. It was found to be even more sensitive in rye (Muzing, 1987).
The B vitamins are liable to be destroyed by light and air, and it also seems that other substances, still unknown, are quickly destroyed (Aubert, 1989). Other deteriorations include denaturation of lipoproteins, phospholipid hydrolysis, auto-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids of phospholipids, polymerization within lipoproteins, browning, Maillard reaction of amino groups from phospholipids and aldehyde groups from sugars, and carotene and aroma losses (Lea, 1957; Thomas, 1976).
Lipids in milled wheat are much more susceptible to enzymatic degradation, because enzymes are incorporated into the flour with fragments of bran and germ and with microorganisms from the surface of the grain. Associated with lipid deterioration are losses of carotenoids and vitamin E (Galliard, 1983).
The nutritional importance of using fresh stone-ground grains for bread-making was revealed in the results of feeding studies in Germany (Bernasek, 1970). Rats were fed diets consisting of 50% flour or bread. Group 1 consumed fresh stone-ground flour. Group 2 was fed bread made with this flour. Group 3 consumed the same flour as group 1 but after 15 days of storage. Group 4 was fed bread made with the flour fed to group 3. A fifth group consumed white flour. After four generations, only the rats fed fresh stone-ground flour and those fed the bread made with it maintained their fertility. The rats in groups 3 to 5 had become infertile. Four generations for rats is believed to be equivalent to one hundred years in humans.
Different ecological standards for flour storage set limits of 15 to 60 days (Picker & Pedersen, 1990), although rancidity has been detected as early as 2 to 14 days after milling (Larsen, 1988). Nutrient analysis studies are required to determine the exact nutrient losses accompanying the development of rancidity and thereafter.
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MILLING OF GRAIN
The Egyptians were the first to use a selective milling system. With hand sieves, they separated the flour from large bran particles, dirt, and stone chips that had broken off their implements (Davis 1981; Hall 1974; Marine & Van Allen 1972). Stone chips are not a problem with modern mills. In 1950, the degree of contamination of stone-milled flour with stone-dust was shown to be so slight as to not alter the mineral content of flour markedly (Moritz et al., 1950).
Since Roman times, white flour and bread have been regarded as the foods of upper classes. Flour, however, was far from white compared to today’s flour (Marine & Van Allen, 1972). It was not until the 19th century that major changes in the milling processes took place.
The earliest version of today’s iron roller mills were first used in Hungary in 1839. Between 1870 and 1890, they quickly replaced the stone mills throughout Europe and North America, and milling soon became completely automated (Davis 1981; Hall 1974). The roller mills were more economical and more efficient. The milling process could be controlled to produce as white a flour as the public demanded (Mount, 1975). However, the resulting flour was devoid of bran and germ, and consequently many nutrients were lacking.
MILLING TODAY
A very sophisticated process is currently employed for the milling of grain. Cleaning is accomplished by means of separators, aspirators, scourers, magnets, and washer-stoners. The wheat is tempered or conditioned in water to toughen the bran to reduce fragmentation when it is removed, and to obtain a moisture content resulting in particles of the desired size. The processes of drying and conditioning rye with steam (25% humidity and 60°C), have been shown to cause minerals such as potassium and phosphorus migrated to the endosperm, whereas more strongly bound minerals like calcium and magnesium did not migrate (Pelshenke, 1970). This may increase the content of certain minerals in refined flour. During the milling process, steel rollers crush the grain, and the flour released from the endosperm is separated by sifters into different grades or streams, according to fineness. Each of these has different mineral and protein contents, and may be recombined later to form a variety of flours to be sold for diverse baking purposes (Jenkins, 1975; Davis, 1981). The bran and germ, which make up about 28% of the wheat, are totally removed in this process. They are used in the production of animal feeds (Davis, 1981), as -well as by pharmaceutical laboratories for making diet supplements (Sablier, 1984).
Whole wheat flour is produced by recombining ground bran with endosperm flour, but the germ is usually left out, because it would go rancid. The resulting flour may represent only 95% to of the total grain (by weight), or in other words a 95% extraction (Day, 1966)
About 95% of the flour used in the USA is white and of only about 72% extraction. Only 20 to 30% of the grains original vitamins are retained, and the protein content is about 1 - 1.5 To lower. However, since bran decreases protein digestibility, the available protein does not significantly change (Pomeranz, 1988; Nierle, 1989). The NPU is similar in 66 to 100% extractions (Pedersen and Eggum, 1983).
ENRICHMENT OF FLOUR
In the 1940s, a flour enrichment program was instituted to compensate for wartime shortages of other foods. However, in the ‘enriched’ flour only the B vitamins - thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin - and the mineral, iron, were added, in amounts approximately equivalent to those removed from whole wheat (Jenkins, 1975). Flour ‘Enrichment’ implies a loss of nutrients and should not be equated with wholesomeness. For approximately 20 nutrients, there is an average loss of 70-80% to in refined and enriched flour (Davis, 1981). Its consumption clearly places the body at a disadvantage, casting a burden on the rest of the diet. The addition of more nutrients to refined flour has been considered, but it is limited by, for example, the effect of some nutrients on sensitive individuals (Pomeranz, 1988).
Since research is incomplete concerning nutrient requirements, interactions, optimal ratios, and toxicities (Allison et al., 1980), many believe that the safest option is to consume flour containing the nutrients in their natural proportions.
ADULTERATION OF FLOUR
As with most raw commodities, grains included, processing is the primary means used to maintain and increase market share. Typically, relatively little time and money is invested to examine possible health implications of such processing. Concerning grains, the separation of the milling and baking industries has led to the adulteration of flour with various chemicals, as flour manufacturers have sought to maximize profits and meet customer demands. For example, removing the germ not only prevents flour spoilage, it generates profits when sold to millfeed producers and pharmaceutical companies.
For centuries, bakers have known that ‘good quality’ baked goods could not be made with freshly milled flour, because the dough would lack strength and resilience to trap gas. Until the 20th century it was common practice of storing flour for months to allow oxygen to condition it. However, as well as storage costs, spoilage and insects caused losses. Chemical oxidizing agents or bleaches were developed to produce the same aging effects in 24-48 hours (Baker’s Digest, 1962). They cause one of two effects: oxidation of the gluten (so less sulfhydryl groups are left to disturb disulfide bonds that need to form during dough fermentation for the bread to rise), and bleaching of the yellowish carotene pigments which could have been sources of vitamin A (Thomas, 1986; Jenkins 1975; Freeland-Graves & Peckham, 1987).
Bleaching agents did not come into use without opposition. A 1954 issue of the National Police Gazette, reports that, Harvey W. Wiley, Chief of the Food and Drug Administration early this century, won a Supreme Court decision outlawing bleaches, but he Was forced out of the FDA, and the Supreme Court order was bypassed through administrative actions. The approval of chlorine dioxide as a bleaching agent was not without protests by U.S. Army nutrition experts (Rorty, 1954).
Today, the Canadian Food and Drug Act and Regulations Division 13, B.13.001 permits the addition of numerous chemicals to white, whole wheat, and rye flours (Daniels, 1978). These include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, benzoyl peroxide, potassium bromate, ammonium persulfate, ammonium chloride, acetone peroxide, azodicarbonamide, ascorbic acid, l-cysteine, mono-calcium phosphate. Regulations also specify the acceptable levels. The addition of a variety of chemicals to bread is also permitted in the USA, but in many European countries the use of additives is almost completely prohibited (Jenkins, 1975). In Germany, for instance, chemical oxidizing agents were banned in 1958 (Marine & Van Allen, 1972).
Nitrogen bichloride, also known as agene, was one of the earliest bleaching agents. After 40 years of use, it was finally found to cause canine hysteria, and was outlawed (Rorty, 1954). The currently most common bleaching agent is benzoyl peroxide. It must be neutralized by adding such substances as: calcium carbonate (chalk!), calcium sulphate, dicalcium phosphate, magnesium carbonate, potassium aluminum sulphate, sodium aluminum sulphate, starch, and tricalcium phosphate.
The most common maturing agent in use is potasssium bromate, and it is added with carriers such as calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate, or magnesium carbonate. An alternative method to oxidize the flour to cause the same improvements in bread quality, is overmixing the dough three to four times normal to bring it in contact with oxygen. The lipoxidase enzyme in wheat germ or in soya flour, if it is added, uses the oxygen to oxidize the flour (Horder et al., 1954).
In addition to the chemicals permitted to be added to flour, many more are permitted to be added to bread before baking to facilitate the manufacturing process, to produce a light texture, and to improve conservation quality. These chemicals include emulsifiers, conditioners, and preservatives (Hall, 1974). At the present time, the Health Protection Branch in Canada allows the addition of almost 30 different chemicals, in limited quantities, to flour and bread. Yeast may also contain the Yeast foods additives: calcium sulfate and ammonium chloride (Aubuchon, 1990). Chemicals likely to be found in conventional breads include: lecithin, mono- and di- glycerides, carragheenan, calcium sulfate, calcium carbonate, dicalcium sulfate, ammonium chloride, potassium bromate, calcium bromate, potassium iodate, calcium peroxide, azodicarbonamide, tricalcium phosphate, monocalcium phosphate, calcium propionate, sodium propionate, sodium diacetate, lactic acid, calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate, lactylic stearate, sodium stearyl fumarate, succinylated monoglycerides, ethoxylated mono- and all-glycerides (Marine & Van Allen, 1972)
In Germany, propionic acid, sodium propionate, calcium propionate, and potassium propionate have been banned as preservatives since March 1988. This was in response to earlier experiments which found that rats fed these substances developed tumors. These results have been questioned, however, because the tumors were reversable. Nevertheless, the German government decided that as few additives as possible should be found in food, and therefore saw no need to reverse their decision (”Nach...” 1987, “Jetzt...” 1988).
A topic receiving more attention, as people become more concerned about the foods they eat, is food irradiation. Approval for irradiation of wheat and wheat flour for disinfection was granted in 1969 in Canada (Conference on Irradiation, Laval, Que. 1984). Wheat irradiation prevents insect eggs, larvae and pupae from developing (Vanderstoep, 1986), but may also cause nutritional damage. Vitamins damaged by irradiation include vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, folic acid, vitamin C, E, and K. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids are also affected (Webb et al.,1987). Although wheat, white flour, and whole wheat flour are treated with lower-energy ionizing radiations from Cobalt-60, there is still a possibility that some compounds within the food become radioactive, although the radioactivity rapidly decays (Josephson & Peterson, 1983). Toxic chemicals called radiolytes may also form, which may cause health problems over the long term. Some adverse effects have been found related to these, but there is still much scientific uncertainty (Josephson & Peterson, 1983). Irradiation technology is a serious health hazard and environmental hazard, especially if accidents occur where it is used.
STUDIES OF THE HEALTH EFFECTS OF BREAD
Since bread and wheat products are such an important part of daily food consumption, it follows that such food items be healthy and wholesome. Today’s milling, refining, bleaching, enriching, and addition of various chemicals to flour and baked breads cause many scientists and medical workers to question their nutritional quality as well as their safety. There is little information on what bleaching and maturing agents do to the flour other than meet bakers’ criteria, and toxicology tests may not realistically assess the dangers, since chemicals are tested separately. The general public, has become conditioned to commercial bread products, and is uninformed about the effects of the processing that flour undergoes. Many recorded cases demonstrate the effects of the quality of flour on the health of people or animals, and illustrate the importance of the nutritional value of bread to physical health.
Refined flour has been found less effective in promoting the growth of weanling rats than wholemeal, if the flour was the main source of protein (Chick, 1958).
Steel roller mills were introduced in Britain in 1872. By 1876, the birth rate began to decline from 36/1000 to less than 14/1000 in 1941, at which time the National Loaf became compulsory (85% extraction, including the germ). In the next two years, the birth rate rose to 16/1000. Vitamin E deficiency was the suspected cause, since it was believed to have something to do with human and animal reproduction, and is destroyed in the refining of flour. Friend Sykes was said to get his horses and cows to breed by feeding them wheat germ for two months, and Dr. L. J. Picton did the same with his stallions (Day, 1966).
Documented in 1936, was the diversity in physique of the different tribes of India, showing the effects of foods on health (McCarrison, 1936). The northern races were much stronger, due to wheat being the staple of their diet. They consumed chapattis cakes made from fresh coarse whole wheat flour. Experiments with albino rats determined the value of some of the Indian diets, and these results conformed with their effects observed on men. About 1 000 rats were fed a diet equivalent to the northern Indians’ for a period equivalent to 50 human years. None were ill or died, or even delivered dead offspring. Deficiently-fed rats under the same conditions developed many ailments. Overall, 30% of the rats fed white flour died while only 4% of those fed whole wheat died. It was concluded that adequate nourishment could be found in a diet of whole cereal grains, milk products, legumes, fruits and vegetables, and eggs and meat occasionally.
Rats on the healthy northern diet were also compared to rats fed a diet equivalent to that of the poorer classes of England (McCarrison, 1936). This diet, deficient in vitamins and minerals, consisted of white bread, margarine, very sweet tea with a little milk, boiled cabbage and potato, cheap tinned meat, and jam. These rats had stunted growth, were badly proportioned, had dull coats, were nervous, bit attendants, and by the 60th day, began killing and eating the weaker ones. Post-mortem examinations revealed a high incidence of lung and gastrointestinal diseases. McCarrison believed that vitamin deficiency was responsible for the many health problems.
Dr. Estelle Hawley, of Rochester University, fed a group of rats McCay-Cornell bread made with unbleached flour, wheat germ, and soybean flour and a lot of milk solids. She fed another group commercial enriched white bread. Both groups also received an amount of margarine equivalent to 10% of the weight of the bread (Rorty, 1954). The first group lived healthy, but the second group became ill, produced stunted offspring and were extinct by the fourth generation.
A journal article, written in 1942, discusses the deterioration of the physique of the British, between the 18th century and the Boer War around 1900 (Alvarez, 1942). The most probable explanation was that they had come to depend too much on white flour and sugar, whereas their ancestors had eaten plenty of ‘whole wheat flour.
In Denmark, during World War II, due to a food crisis, many domestic animals were slaughtered and their grain rations fed to humans. Consumption of white bread was stopped, and replaced by a bread made from a wholemeal of 67% rye, 21% oats, and 12% bran, called Kleiebrot. Consequently, the death rate fell to the lowest level ever registered in Europe. There were significant declines in the incidence of high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney problems, diabetes, and cancer, and there were no cases of digestive troubles (Marine & Van Allen, 1972; Day, 1966).
In 1970, Dr. Roger Williams, of the University of Texas’s Clayton Research Foundation, recorded the effects, on 64 weanling rats, of being fed bread made from enriched flour (Passwater, 1975). Forty were dead within ninety days, and the rest had stunted growth, whereas similar rats fed whole-grain bread were normal; only three were not well.
A fear exists, among medical professionals, that emulsifiers, some of which are added to bread, may promote the absorption of otherwise non-absorbed substances, some of which may be carcinogenic. Emulsifiers include monoglycerides, diglycerides, and poly compounds which usually go by variations of the words ‘stearate’ and ‘sorb’ (ea. stearyl, polysorbate). Although glycerides are naturally produced by the body, this does not prove that their artificial use is safe. Some emulsifiers have been found to increase vitamin A absorption tremendously. This may be dangerous if the rest of an individual’s diet supplies a large amount of vitamin A. Dr. Anton Carlson expresses the view that many have by stating, n...Small amounts of injury in certain percentages of the people may go undiscovered for generations. This is a serious problem involved in the changes of such a fundamental thing as the type of food for mans (Marine & Van Allen, 1972).
Enriched flour may have a lower vitamin bioavailability, since synthetic vitamins have been found to act different’,y. For instance, they react differently to light, and synthetic vitamin C does not cure scurvy in mice as quickly as natural vitamin C (Day, 1966). Enriched flour products have also been found to lose more vitamins due to heat than do non-enriched products, because added vitamins are less heat-resistant. This is believed to be due to the absence of naturally occurring stabilizers (Mender, 1983; Thomas, 1990).
Many people claim to control allergic symptoms by eliminating bleached wheat products from their diets (Marine & Van Allen, 1972).
These are only a few examples to illustrate the nutritional inadequacy of refined flour products.
BENEFITS OF WHEAT FIBER
As a result of the refining of flour and changes in dietary habits, the consumption of dietary fiber has decreased by at least one half during the past two centuries. Epidemiological studies relate low fiber intake to many disease states, particularly those of the gastrointestinal tract (Birdsall, 1985). From his observations, Dr. Dennis Burkitt claimed that the large amount of plant fibers consumed by African natives protected them from suffering from many diseases common to Western man such as cardiovascular disease, colon cancer, diverticulae, appendicitis, hemorrhoids and varicose veins of the legs (Burkitt, 1972).
Diets high in complex carbohydrates such as whole cereal grains, legumes, and Units and vegetables are usually the custom in populations with very low incidence of cardiovascular disease (Brown et al.,1985). Studies indicate that high-fiber diets decrease blood pressure in normal as well as in hypertensive subjects (Birdsall, 1985). For elevated blood serum lipids, dietary recommendations include increasing carbohydrate consumption to make up 65% of total daily calories, emphasizing complex carbohydrates from nature’, sources (Gotto et al.,1984), because they influence the absorption of fat-soluble substances from the digestive tract, and the reabsorption of bile acids and neutral steroils (Hodges et al.,1985). These recommendations are given to diabetics as well, since cardiovascular disease is their most likely cause of death (Anderson et al., 1990)
A diet rich in complex carbohydrates also improves glucose metabolism in diabetic subjects, by increasing their sensitivity to insulin, therefore resulting in reduced dosages requirements (Birdsall, 1985). In a study, Finnish wholemeal rye bread (100% wholemeal rye flour) was found to induce slower postprandial blood glucose responses in insulin-dependent diabetics than did mixed wholemeal bread (50% wholemeal rye flour & 50% white wheat flour) and white bread (100% white wheat flour). Grained wholemeal rye (35% of the wholemeal rye flour was replaced by whole rye grains) resulted in a blood glucose response similar to that after consumption of wholemeal rye bread. In non- insulin-dependent diabetics, the differences were not statistically significant, but wholemeal rye bread produced the lowest blood glucose response. The results believed to be due to the higher content of bran or non- digestible or non-absorbable carbohydrate in wholemeal flour, or grain (Heinonen et al., 1985). Perhaps wheat fiber’s effect of reducing starch digestibility was also involved (Anderson, 1985: Leeds, 1985).
Numerous studies demonstrate that populations with the highest fiber intake have the lowest incidence of colon cancer. There is, however, also a correlation with total fat intake (Birdsall, 1985). A diet consisting of a low-fat, whole grain staple food, such as whole grain bread, would provide protective effects against colon cancer. Because bran reduced the number of tumors induced by chemical carcinogens in animal models (Bingham, 1990), it was concluded that it protects humans from colon cancer. A hypothesis for this effect is that fiber decreases intestinal contact with carcinogens.
For the Western population, constipation is a major problem. It may lead to hemorroids, diverticulae, and even contribute to the development of varicose veins (Burkitt, 1982). Wheat bran decreases intestinal transit time (Payler et al. 1975), because it decreases intestinal pressure, and increases peristalsis (Thomas, 1976). It is one of the best fecal bulking agents identified (Cummings et al., 1982), and is even more effective in raw form, because of the structural changes that occur in the latter, increasing the amount of bacterial degradation it undergoes in the intestine (Pomeranz, vol. 2, 1988). Wheat fiber is also claimed to strengthen, by stimulation, the intestinal mucosa, and decrease the incidence of gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the stomach or intestine (Thomas, 1976).
The phytates in wheat bran and germ bind minerals and have been believed to drastically reduce the bioavailability of minerals. Drastic reduction is not the case, and many factors, including what other foods are consumed at the same time, improve bioavailability. For example, consumption of meat, sufficient protein, and vitamin C increase the absorption of iron, for example (Pomeranz, 1988). Since whole wheat contains many more nutrients, a somewhat decreased bioavailability would be far from the detrimental effects of excluding bran altogether. Consumption of whole wheat flour has been shown to result in a greater absorption of iron than if low extraction flour was consumed (Burk et al., 1985). Studies also showed that, although the percent of zinc absorbed from white bread was twice that from whole wheat bread, since whole wheat bread supplied greater than three times more, the absolute quantity absorbed was more from whole wheat bread (Sanderstorm et al., 1980). Calcium is an exception, and phytates are said to have a drastic effect upon its absorption (Pomeranz, 1988). Smaller particles of fiber would be expected to lead to a greater bioavailability of the nutrients in the bran (Pomeranz, 1980), although smaller particles may not be as effective stimulating the bulking effects and the speeding up of intestinal transit (Wheaton, 1990). A certain degree of adaptation to phylates may occur as well, as observed in an experiment where, on the first five days of a fifteen day period, the absorption of some minerals was lower, with untreated as well as dephytinized wheat bran (Morris and Ellis, 1982; Morris et al., 1984).
Wheat fiber helps to neutralize acid secreted by the stomach, and is therefore of therapeutic value for persons with ulcers (Thomas, 1976).
Wheat fiber-rich foods are less energy-dense than low-fiber foods, and produce a feeling of fullness or satiety more quickly. The insoluble fiber in wheat bran slows digestion by decreasing the surface area of starch and other ingredients exposed to hydrolytic enzymes, slows absorption in the small intestine (Schneeman, 1982), and increases fecal excretion of fat and nitrogen (Anderson, 1985; Leeds, 1985). It may increase fecal energy loss by 60 to more than 300 kca/day via fat and protein loss (Vahouny, 1985). Wheat fiber-rich foods can therefore be beneficial in the treatment or prevention of obesity (Thomas, 1976).
The importance of wheat fiber cannot be overlooked. Pomeranz (1988) writes, n Thus the additional nutrients present in whole wheat products and the physiological effect of the fiber on fecal bulk and transit time suggest that Western industrialized populations would continue to benefit from the consumption of more whole wheat foods.”
EFFECTS OF ORGANIC FARMING ON NUTRITIONAL QUALITY OF WHEAT
Organically grown wheat and bread made from it are becoming more common on the market. Organic farming is defined by Dietrich Knorr Ph.D., Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition at the University of Delaware, Newark (Knorr, 1984), as “...a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and filth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds and other pests.”
In a survey of mid-Western Americans conducted in 1987, the leading advantages of organic farming expressed were health benefits for the farmers, family, livestock, environment, and soil, and a lower production cost (Institute of Food Tech..., 1990).
After approximately fifty years of utilizing chemicals in conventional agriculture, their health hazards are beginning to be recognized. Health risks to farmers and consumers from pesticides are the major concerns. Chronic exposure may cause neurotoxicity, infertility, dermatologic legions, immune system incompetence, and a number of pesticides are probably carcinogenic (Edwards, 1990). The U.S. Council on Scientific Affairs estimated, in 1988, that approximately 110 000 cases of poisoning and 200 deaths per year are due to pesticides (Edwards, 1990). To demonstrate the seriousness of the effect on the environment, well water in 34 States was found contaminated with 73 pesticides (Anderson, 1988). Nitrates due to fertilizer nitrogen also contaminated water (Hallberg, 1987).
Organic farming techniques are not harmful to the environment since herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides which may cause permanent damage to the earth are not used (JADA, March 1990). Diatomaceous earth is used as a non-toxic alternative to pesticides and fumigants. It is made up of crushed geological deposits from fossils and tests of siliceous marine and fresh water organisms, especially diatoms (grass of oceans and lakes) and other algae. Its small sharp edges damage insects on grain. Several tests conducted between 1963 and 1970 by the US Department of Agriculture concluded that DE gave even better protection to grains than toxic chemicals like malathion (Hill, 1986; Wheeler, 1986).
The toxicity of pesticide residues on food depends on whether organs, including the liver, have the ability to metabolize them and their resulting metabolites (Hayes & Borzelleca, 1982). There is evidence that pesticides also interact with other chemicals and nutrients in the diet (Dubois, 1972). Many experts have failed, however, to find any differences in pesticide residues on grain (Meuser et al., 1984; Seibel, 1983). It is necessary to clean organic grain intensively also, because of the risk of mold toxin contamination such as aflotoxins. Siebel (1983) states that often organically grown grains are not cleaned sufficiently. Chronic poisonings have occurred from ingesting aflatoxins from grain due to inappropriate cleaning (Opitz, 1984; Pfander et al., 1985). Agriculture Canada Research report, though, that “In Canada, the incidence of toxin-contaminated grain is extremely low relative to the volume of grains produced. Occurrence of toxins is influenced by field moisture, temperature, and bin storage conditions of a particular year” (Mills, 1990).
Common agricultural methods now in use are causing the soil to become deficient in various elements, because many are not replenished. Usually, only nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers are applied unless gross deficiencies of others are recognized. As a result, crops cannot obtain optimal amounts of minerals, and are more susceptible to pests and diseases (tinder, 1985).
Spelt is a preferred grain for organic farming since, although it requires a balanced nitrogen content in the soil, it grows well without excessive application of nitrogen fertilizers (Beck, 1991).
Many feeding experiments have been done to try to prove the nutritional superiority of organically grown food.
In Pfeiffer’s experiments the number of mortalities among 80 mice fed organic grains was about half of that among 80 mice fed mineral-fertilized grain (about 9% vs. 17%). Both groups preferred the organically grown wheat (90% of the time). Chickens on organic grain began laying earlier, and at faster rates. They laid twice as many fertile eggs, and the eggs kept better. Pfeiffer also found that heating the mineral-fertilized wheat decreased the capacity of most of it to germinate, whereas it had almost no effect on the organic wheat.
Pfeiffer (1938) repeatedly demonstrated that earthworms migrated away from a box with soil and mineral fertilizers to one with organic compost.
In another study, chickens fed organic food were of significantly greater weight after 32 weeks and gained more weight after illness. The weight of their eggs, and egg yolks were more. Also, significantly more hens preferred beets that were organically grown (Plochberger, 1989).
The results of another study done by Plochberger, Volimoriv, Huspeka, and Scholt at the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Biological Agriculture, now being prepared for publication, examined, over a period of three generations, the effects on rat fertility of being fed organically cultivated food. Although pregnancy rate and average litter weight were not significantly different, there were significantly fewer still born offspring, and the survival rate at four weeks was significantly higher. The rats fed organic food had a greater capacity to compensate weight loss during and after lactation and gained more weight.
A Ph.D. thesis carried out at the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Biological Agriculture by Irene Edelmuller, now in print, presents the effects of conventional and organic farming systems on nutrient contents of feeds. As a result of feeding tests, rabbits showed improvements, due to organic feed, in fertility, health, breeding efficiency, and increased fungi populations on their excrement. The rabbits in both groups preferred organic feed.
A study by Dr. Dorothea Staiger showed that rabbits fed organic feed, compared to conventional feed, had higher pregnancy rates, more embryos, larger litters, and were healthier, although differences in terms of ingredients were not detected analytically (Staiger, 1988).
In spite of the results of feeding experiments, many studies have been unable to find significant differences in nutrients between organically and conventionally grown grain. No significant differences were found in protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals (micro and macro), trace elements, pesticide residues, and heavy metals for grains grown under the same climate and soil conditions (Seibel 1983, Steineck 1984). Belderock (1978, 1979), a Dutch researcher, was unable to identify significant differences in mineral and amino acid contents. Organically grown wheat and rye have only been found to have a somewhat lower protein content (Seibel, 1983) due to the absence of nitrogen fertilizers, making it more difficult to work with (Seibel, 1983; Boling et al., 1986; Belderok, 1978,1979). There is definitely a need to do carefully controlled studies to support nutrient claims concerning the superiority of organically grown foods (Clancy, 1986). There are no doubt many other advantages to organic farming which have been proven, and it is a matter of time before results of carefully conducted research are published.
Studies on yield differences between organic and conventional farming practices have been inconclusive. However, significant reductions in storage losses of organically grown crops have been reported (Patterson, 1978; Knorr & Vogtmann, 1983; Linder, 1985), which could mean higher returns in alternative systems. The need for fertilizers in the conventional system to maintain a high level of grain production on minimal space is destroying the ecosystem, and would favor the organic alternative (Meuser et al., 1984).
DOUGH PREPARATION
Bread-making involved lengthy bulk fermentation before high-speed mixers were invented. The Chorleywood Bread Process introduced in 1961 is now the most common continuous system used in bakeries in more than 30 countries (Chamberlain, 1984). The dough is developed in less than five minutes (Davidson & Passmore, 1986), but the process consumes four to eight times the energy consumed by bulk fermentation, and 50100% more yeast is used because it does not have the time to reach full activity (Pomeranz, 1988).
SOURDOUGH BREAD AND PHYTATES
Sourdough bread is made using a starter from a previous bake. Wheat and rye grains are chosen because they contain sufficient gluten and gliadin proteins which are necessary for expansion and leavening (Kollath). Sourdoughs are fermented by a variety of lactic acid bacteria, called Lactobacillus, which consume sugar to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas. They also produce lactic and acetic acids, which give sourdough breads their distinctive flavour. Traditional sourdoughs do not contain baker’s yeast, although some yeast species do survive in that acidic environment (Freeland-Graves & Peckham, 1987).
The acidity and the lengthy fermentation affect the phytate from the wheat, and many studies have proven the resulting nutritional advantages. Phytates are known to bind minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, and zinc, and to reduce their absorption by the body (Aubert, 1984, “Pour...n). In an acidic environment, the enzyme phytase from the wheat is very active and breaks down phytates, so they cannot reduce mineral absorption (Sablier, 1984). The pH of the sourdough bread is about 4.0-4.8, whereas yeast bread is 5.1-5.4 (Freeland-Graves & Peckham, 1987). Graphs from Aubert’s studies (1984, “Pain...n) demonstrate a clear correlation between the change in acidity of the bread prepared with baker’s yeast and sourdough breads with the change in their phytate contents. Studies showed, however, that the addition of milk, calcium carbonate, or ‘calcium chloride to bread dough slowed phytate hydrolysis. A study showed that calcium supplementation, equivalent to that contributed by calcium-containing additives, caused a 50% decrease in free zinc and iron, and this correlated with the increase in residual phytate (Zemel & Shelef, 1982).
The acidic environment of sourdough bread has the advantage of reducing the loss of vitamin B1 due to heat (Fox & Cameron, 1989).
Sourdough bread is claimed to have a better digestibility than yeast-fermented and non-fermented breads (Aubert, 1984, “Pour...”).
Many people choose to consume traditional sourdough breads because they develop an intolerance towards commercial baker’s yeast in conventional breads.
OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF BREAD
Many ingredients may be included in bread, in addition to the basic ingredients of flour, water, leavening, and salt, to increase its nutritional value.
Flax or linseeds and sunflower seeds may be added. Some nutritional aspects of flax were discussed in the Montreal Gazette’s Living Section of May 15, 1991. Health professionals are fairly confident that omega-3-fatty acids are beneficial for heart disease, vascular disease, cancer and immune function (Guthrie, 1989). Paul Stitt says that flax contains more omega-3 fatty acids than fish, and more lignins, which are possible cancer preventatives, than any other foods. The National Cancer Institute has set up, in five Universities, studies on flax in products supplied by National Ovens. At the University of Illinois in Chicago, studies are being carried out concerning the effects of flax in prevention of colon and mammary cancers in animals and humans. Sunflower seeds supply significant amounts of zinc, calcium, magnesium and vitamin B6 (Lambert-Lagace, 1989), and provide essential fatty acids. However, some researchers in Europe have found that the addition of sunflower seeds to organic breads raised the cadmium level (a heavy metal) above what is considered acceptable. Determining the cadmium level in the seeds is therefore recommended (Meuser et al., 1984).
The use of sea salt in breads is another way to enrich its nutritional value. It is a source of trace minerals (Pedersen, 1990?), whereas table salt contains only sodium, chloride, and iodine (due to addition).
Soya flour, whose protein is superior to that of wheat because of a better amino acid profile, not limited in Iysine, may be added to bread in reasonable amounts to increase its protein quality (Horder, 1954). Since it is not limited in the amino acid Iysine, soya flour complements the amino acid profile of wheat. Milk-enriched bread has superior nutritive value protein-wise as well (Kon et al., 1941).
The addition of sprouted seeds to bread should enhance its nutritional value dramatically. Sprouted wheat was found to increase in vitamin A content ten fold in seven days, while vitamins B2 and B12 increased between two and ten times, and vitamin C content increased rapidly as well. Many enzymes were synthesized, which facilitate digestion and assimilation. About 40~o of the starch content was broken down, resulting in an increased, in the amount of easily digestible dextrins and sugars, greater than 150%. Some protein was broken down into amino acids, so the biological quality of the proteins increased due to the increase in usable Iysine. Most of the undesirable, flatulence-promoting oligosaccharides were destroyed, as well as the phytates and trypsin inhibitors (trypsin is an enzyme needed to break down proteins) (Aubert, 1984, “Les graines...). For their use in breads, wheat sprouts should only grow one half the length of the kernel itself, or else the bread will be sticky (Reynolds, 1973).
Many vitamins are sensitive to light, temperature, and moisture, so milling, processing, and storage conditions affect their stability. B vitamins are susceptible to destruction by heat. During baking, 17-23% of vitamin Bt may be destroyed. Another 15% may be lost during as little as sixty seconds of toasting. (Dawson et al., 1941; Under, 1985; Menden, 1983).
During baking, proteins are denatured, which implies that they lose their three-dimensional structure, and become easier to digest, and less activating energy is required for enzyme hydrolysis (Mender, 1983). The crust, which undergoes more severe heating, has as a result, a lower amino acid availability due to the Maillard reaction (Mender & Horchler, 1978; Kasarda, 1971). Experimental animals lose weight when fed the crust only, but gain weight when fed the crumb (Mender & Horchler, 1978).
STORAGE OF BREAD
Storage methods for breads that contain no additives are very important to maintain freshness and to avoid spoilage. The staling process begins as soon as the bread is removed from the oven. It is believed to be due to a retrogradation or crystallization of the starch (Knightly, 1977), or a transfer of moisture from the gluten to the starch portion, causing a firming of the crumb (Willhoft, 1971), and may occur whether or not there is a loss of moisture. When the original moisture is retained, heating the bread to 60°C reverses the staling (Spicer, 1975). Bran helps bread retain moisture longer, and fat may also increase tenderness (McWilliams, 1989). Retrogradation occurs at 0°C but stops above 55°C (Pedersen, 1990?). Bread stales twice as fast at 30°C and four times as fast at 21°C compared to 35°C (Kim et al., 1977). It is therefore not advisable to refrigerate bread, but if kept at room temperature, mold growth may be more likely (Horder, 1954). The firmness after a day at 8°C is about the same as six days at 30°C (McWilliams, 1989). Sourdough bread has the advantage that due to its acidic environment it is better protected from spoilage (Jenkins, 1975; Thomsen, 1988). Freezing almost completely inhibits firming, and retards firming after thawing, and more so the longer the frozen storage (Malkki et al., 1978). Freezing bread also prevents microbial spoilage, including the development of rope (Horder, 1954). Baked bread can be kept frozen for three months without losing flavor (Bread Winners, 1978).
Interestingly, slightly stale bread is more easily digested than fresh bread, up to ten days, after which there is a reversal (Jackel et al., 1952).
CONCLUSION
Wheat and bread are important parts of the diets of people in many countries, and when made from whole grains, only lacks a few essential nutrients. However, in more industrialized countries, the consumption of refined flour products is much more common. Many studies with animals and recorded cases dealing with people show the serious effects of the lack of nutrients, when refined flour products make up the dietary staple.
One concern with commercial flour is the possibility that it has been irradiated, which may cause nutrient losses, the formation of radiolytes, and radioactivity in the food itself, and which poses an environmental hazard.
Only whole grain stone-ground flour is sure to contain the grain components in their original proportions and to include the germ. The way the stones grind distributes the germ oil evenly and without exposing it to excess heat, so rancidity does not develop as quickly as it would were it ground by steel roller-mills. However, many authors recommend storing freshly ground flour for no longer than two weeks, because rancidity becomes evident, and many flour components undergo chemical changes, when exposed to oxygen, increased humidity, high temperature, and light, and decreasing their availability to the body.
Nutritionally, organic grain has only been found to contain less protein, but other differences are not conclusive based on analytical studies. Feeding experiments do demonstrate the nutritional superiority of organic wheat and other foods.
Commercial bread production processes use much more energy and yeast than sourdough breads and are prepared very quickly.
Advantages of the acidic environment and the lengthy fermentation of sourdough bread include the breakdown of phytates -increasing mineral bioavailability, increased digestibility, and decreased rate of spoilage. Various additional ingredients may also enhance the mineral and vitamin content in bread, as well its protein quality.
Freezing is the best storage method for breads containing no preservatives to prevent spoilage, whereas refrigeration enhances staling.
Many factors affect the nutritional quality of bread. Consumers need to be aware of these to make wise choices as they decide upon purchasing breads, so as not to deceive themselves. It is advisable to avoid refined, bleached flour, even if it is enriched, and to chose whole wheat flour. However, store-bought whole wheat flour is likely to be void of the germ and a part of the bran, in which the nutrients are most concentrated. Also, it is usually treated with the same chemical improvers as white flour, and may have been irradiated. Only organic, stone-ground, whole wheat flour can be complete and untreated by chemicals. To obtain maximal nutrition from bread, a traditional sourdough bread is best, since the mineral-binding phytates have undergone more breakdown and have freed minerals, so that they may be absorbed. The mineral and vitamin content may also be enhanced with other ingredients that also add variety. For better utilization of the protein in bread, it should be consumed in combination with complementary proteins, which are better sources of the limiting amino acid - Iysine - in wheat. Examples are milk products, nuts, legumes, meat or fish. The protein quality of bread itself may be enhanced by adding soya flour, since it is made from a legume.
BIBLIOGRAPHY [This is even longer than the article, so not printed...granny]
[You will need to go and look at the chart, it is interesting..
granny]
http://www.soilandhealth.org/06clipfile/0602robic.cmpstng.chrt.html
Aerobic Composting Chart
(Received this from a library client. It’s such a well-done report on his composting process
that I felt it belongs in the library’s clipping files. Steve Solomon, May 1, 2002)
Dear Steve,
. . . a prettied up, anotated version of the Indore Time-Temp curves, slightly modded from your original treatise. . . .
Glad to hear if I’ve got anything wrong.
I’m collating a set of curves for standard 2.5 > 3 cu. yd loads of horse manure that I do 2 or 3 a year of now, having got myself some 6’ x 5’ ventilated timber bins sorted, building a second pair this year, with heat extraction for allotment greenhouse (hopefully).
Even in 0 C temps here in early spring, still goes up to 70 - 74 C in the core at least twice, even if I try and keep the heap profile flat and down to 2’ deep. I’ve really adopted your idea of sieving a layer of soil over the top after every ‘turn’ which gets nicely mixed in as turn follows turn. With proper breaking up of matted clumps, mixing and hydrating, its a 2 hour job minimum to turn from bin to bin. I find an early 1st turn helps, adding some soil into the core area if possible, to retard and extend the temp rise. Using a nice 5 ft temp probe - a great investment - now I know what I’m doing with this stuff - guessing from resultant curves that its about 25:1 when delivered. Always seem to get white, stalky, evil looking mushrooms early on though, must try harder! 100- 120 days seems more like the final ‘finished’ state, than 90 - 100.
Regards,
Clive Smith
clive.harman-smith@ntlworld.com
http://eap.mcgill.ca/Publications/eap66.htm
EAP Publication - 66
Responsible Pest Control In Gardens and Homes
Pesticides Task Force Inc.
Westmount Post Office
P.O. Box 117
Westmount Québec
H3Z 2T1
Why is this pamphlet necessary?
1. There is much misinformation about pests, pesticides and their alternatives.
2. You cannot rely on others (governments, pesticide sales people, etc.) to protect you from danger.
3. This pamphlet will provide you with correct information and empower you to make responsible decisions.
PESTS
* Pests comprise relatively few species.
* Through misinformation, people believe that most insects are harmful, whereas only 0. l % are pests, 99.9% being neutral in their effects or essential to our survival as pollinators, decomposes, regulators of pests, and as food for other beneficial animals such as many fish and birds.
* Pests are not the causes of problems but rather the symptoms of badly designed, mismanaged or malfunctioning gardens, farms, forests, etc. Hence the solution is to correct their design and management, taking direct actions against pests only in emergencies.
* Many organisms are regarded as pests only because of current “fashions” that cannot be justified in terms of health or well-being, e.g., our desires for cosmetically perfect fruits and vegetables and weed-free lawns.
* Many weeds in lawns are indicators of unbalanced or compacted soils. Removing the weeds annually will not correct the underlying causes which, if not dealt with, will ensure that the problem will recur.
PESTICIDES
* Pesticides include fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, miticides and other biocides that are used to reduce the number of unwanted organisms.
* Although the first two groups are slightly specific, insecticides and miticides are nonspecific chemicals that are as poisonous to beneficial organisms as they are to the pests; and all are poisonous to people and pets.
* Most harmful side effects of pesticides are not immediately apparent because they are sub-lethal, and may be delayed.
* These effects are aggravated by the tendency of pesticides to persist in the environment.
* As the pesticide disperses and breaks down, the pests return, and sometimes new pests are created due to the poisoning of their natural enemies.
* Eventually all pests become resistant to the materials use against them.
* Despite these problems pesticides have become an essential part of our food and fibre production systems, partly because of their “magical bullet” image and ability to give quick results, and because their harmful effects rarely enter into the cost-benefit analyses.
* As we become more aware, responsible, and take info account long-term effects, it is likely that this heavy reliance on toxic chemicals will gradually be replaced by safe alternatives, and pesticides will only be used in an emergency or as a last resort.
ALTERNATIVES
* Alternatives to pesticides, rather than focusing on the elimination of “enemies”, aim to achieve satisfactory control and prevention at comparable or lower costs, while minimizing risks to the environment and humanity. Instead of relying on single, simple, quick solutions such as pesticide use, they generally involve taking several combined actions, some of which do not need to be repeated.
* These include cultural, physical, chemical, biological and ecological strategies.
RESPONSIBILITIES
* Responsibility for behaving wisely is yours. This includes thinking about the short and long-term effects of what you do on yourself and your family, your neighbours, and on other organisms and future generations. While experts can give you advice, only you are responsible for your actions. Thus, we need to think differently about pests and take different types of actions to prevent and control them.
* Often people mistakenly believe that any product that can be purchased in a store is safe, or that they are protected by governments and regulatory agencies. Because of the short-term tenure of governments and the economic constraints in which they operate, acceptable levels of safety are often determined in relation to profitability and commercial pressures. You do not have to make this compromise.
* To act wisely, however, you must become familiar with the facts and be willing to make approaches to solving problems that may differ from the majority in society who may be less knowledgeable or aware than yourself.
DO YOU HAVE A PEST PROBLEM
The presence of an insect or weed does not necessarily mean that it is a pest. It is normal to have a few of these organisms around; indeed, their absence would be cause for alarm. So the first thing we need to change to is our expectations of what is normal.
* It is only when these organisms become unusually abundant that we need to examine the situation to find the causes and take remedial action.
* In most cases the problem can be traced to something inappropriate that we did, such as over-fertilizing, planting at the wrong time or in an unfavourable location; or it may be due to natural deficiencies within our soils, or because of a lack of natural controls.
* Responding to these causes requires us to learn about the pest and about the way it is likely to respond to different conditions that discourage potential pests.
HOW TO PREVENT AND CONTROL PESTS WITH MINIMAL RISK
* The key to pest prevention in the garden or lawn is healthy soil, healthy resistant plants, appropriate planting designs and careful environmental management.
* Most soils require the regular addition of organic matter, such as compost, to remain healthy.
* The soil can be loosened but it should not be cultivated in such a way that its surface layers become buried under the deeper layers because this will kill most of the beneficial organisms.
* By following these rules we can create ideal food and space conditions for decomposers and their predators. These beneficial soil organisms will then be able to prevent the development of root diseases, and some of the predators will feed on the plant pests.
* Choose plant varieties that are resistant to local pests and diseases.
* Arrange planting times so that they don’t coincide with the occurrence of potential pests, e.g., by delaying planting carrots by two or three weeks, attack by carrot rust fly can be avoided.
* Minimize stress to plants when transplanting, and provide optimum conditions for seeds. This creates strong plants that are most able to resist and recover from pest attack. Rotate annuals, e.g., soil improving crops such as legumes (peas, beans and clovers) are followed by heavy feeders (tomatoes, corn, potatoes) and then light feeders (carrots, lettuce, beets, onions).
* Companion planting can be used to discourage or control some pests. Onions and carrots planted together to repel one another’s major pests, and the smell of herbs and flowers may prevent the pests from finding their favourite hosts.
* Having plants with small flowers (e.g., parsley, dill, Queen Anne’s lace, lovage) in the garden throughout the year will attract small insects that will parasitize and kill many pests. .
* Some of these beneficial insects can be purchased and released at regular intervals as biological controls, but they will only remain in the same area if the conditions are suitable.
* Commercial and homemade traps can sometimes be effective in controlling pests. Earwigs can be killed by trapping them in skewed up newspaper stuffed into flower pots placed upside down on the ground at night and shaking them out into soapy water in the morning. Hand removal of pests and diseased parts of plants is another time tested remedy.
* Most caterpillars can be killed by spraying them with a suspension containing a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis, available in several commercial formulations.
* You can make your own pathogen spray by collecting several dozen insects and placing them in a blender with a little water (use rain water rather than tap water to avoid the chlorine), sieve the resultant mixture and dilute it with several times the amount of water, then spray it on the pests.
* Some of the least persistent insecticides are the “botanicals”, which are made from plants (the most common is pyrethrum); but as with all insecticides, these should be used with great care and only as a last resort because they also kill beneficial organisms.You can also use a blender to make your own botanical pesticides from different types of plants.
* This is one of the many ways you can experiment and design your own unique methods of control, but be careful to avoid using toxic materials. Natural materials can be just as toxic as synthetics.
* To control carpenter ants, earwigs, and stored food pests, use diatomaceous earth. D.E. is a non-toxic powder that scratches the wax off the insects body causing it to dry up and die. This is particularly useful within a house or other enclosed space. Place it in corners, on window ledges and in dead spaces such as between walls and in the roof.
* In late summer or fall remove the remains of annual plants so that they do not provide overwintering sites for pests.
* An ideal way to do this is to compost them. This disinfects them and creates an ideal soil amendment at the same time.
* Soil should be kept permanently covered with green (plants) or brown materials (mulches and amendments). Bare soil encourages erosion and loss of valuable nutrients, which in turn creates favourable conditions for pest attack.
* Weeds in a lawn should be controlled by creating conditions whereby the grass can out-compete them, e.g. by setting the mower so that the grass is cut at 6-7 cm. high or higher (i.e., higher than usual); removing any thick thatch; infrequent deep watering; aerating the soil, particularly where there is compaction; and adding balanced amendments, such as sieved compost, usually in the fall.
* The main preventative approach, however, is to create ideal conditions for the grass prior to seeding it or laying sod.
* If weeds are not too plentiful or the area not too large, hand weeding may provide a safe, short-term solution.
* If you have a persistent pest problem, seek advice from an expert in the use of safe methods of pest control, ideally one who is not trying to sell you something.
* Only use pesticides as a last resort. If you do decide to use them, be sure that you are completely aware of the safety precautions that must be taken, because knowledge is your best insurance against mishaps. Most important of all; read the label and follow the instructions exactly.
* One test is to only use Pesticides if you can justify their use to those you love most in the world, and to your children’s children.
LAST WORD
* Help others to take a responsible approach to pest prevention and control; and pat yourself on the back for acting responsibly.
Prepared by Dr. Stuart B. Hill,
Dept. of Entomology and Ecological Agriculture Projects,
MacDonald College of McGill University
Ste-Anne de Bellevue, Quebec H9X IC0
(514) 398-7771
Copyright © 1986 Ecological Agriculture Projects
http://eap.mcgill.ca/PCA_4.htm
PLANTING TIME = PEST CONTROL
1. APHIDS (Aphididae family)
Start your cool-season crops (lettuce, broccoli, etc.) indoors early enough to have good-sized transplants ready to go Out in the garden four to five weeks before your last frost date and these -pear-shaped pests won’t plague you as they have in the past. Aphids exist just about everywhere, sucking the life out of garden crops with their piercing mouth parts, often transmitting a host of viruses to your veggies as they do it. (Plants that have curled, distorted leaves or that are covered with sticky honeydew are likely aphid-struck.)
Here’s how to grow those extra early transplants: Start lettuce and other quick-growers indoors eight weeks before your- last frost date, harden them off during their third week;, then plant them in the garden when they are four weeks old. Start slower—growers like broccoli and cauliflower 12 weeks before your last frost date, harden the transplants off for a week when they are seven to eight weeks old, then plant them out into the garden four to five weeks before your last frost date. (And be sure all those transplants are aphid free, cautions Jeffrey Wyman, Ph.D., entomologist at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. Home seed starting set-ups, he explains, are sometimes aphid heaven.)
And don’t let your cool-season crops linger as the weather starts to warm up—pull them up and replace them before they start to bolt and become an aphid breeding ground.
David Riley, Ph.D., an entomologist at Texas A&M University, adds a tip for fall-planting gardeners in the Cotton Belt: Wait two to four weeks after the cotton harvest in your area before you plant your fall lettuce and spinach. Aphids loved that cotton, and will go at hunting for their next meal right after the crop is harvested. To prevent that meal from being sensed up ill your garden, wait the two weeks and shell plant transplants that you have started a month or so earlier inside (to ensure that your crop matures before frost hits).
[Other controls: Encourage aphid eating beneficial insects to take up residence by allowing some herbs (like dill) to flower in your garden; handpick and destroy infested leaves; protect mid season crops with row covers; spray infested plants with a strong stream of plain water or use insecticidal soap.]
Copyright © 1994
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